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Macías-de la Rosa A, López-Rosales L, Cerón-García MC, Molina-Miras A, Soriano-Jerez Y, Sánchez-Mirón A, Seoane S, García-Camacho F. Assessment of the marine microalga Chrysochromulina rotalis as bioactive feedstock cultured in an easy-to-deploy light-emitting-diode-based tubular photobioreactor. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2023; 389:129818. [PMID: 37793555 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2023.129818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2023] [Revised: 09/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/01/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
Marine microalgae have potential to be low-cost raw materials. This depends on the exploitation of different biomass fractions for high-value products, including unique compounds. Chrysochromulina rotalis, an under-explored haptophyte with promising properties, was the focus of this study. For the first time, C. rotalis was successfully cultivated in an 80 L tubular photobioreactor, illuminated by an easy-to-use light-emitting-diode-based system. C. rotalis grew without certain trace elements and showed adaptability to different phosphorus sources, allowing a significant reduction in the N:P ratio without compromising biomass yield and productivity. The design features of the photobioreactor provided a protective environment that ensured consistent biomass production from this shear-sensitive microalgae. Carotenoid analysis showed fucoxanthin and its derivatives as major components, with essential fatty acids making up a significant proportion of the total. The study emphasizes the tubular photobioreactor's role in sustainable biomass production for biorefineries, with C. rotalis as a valuable bioactive feedstock.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Macías-de la Rosa
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Research Centre CIAIMBITAL, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - L López-Rosales
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Research Centre CIAIMBITAL, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain; Research Centre CIAIMBITAL, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - M C Cerón-García
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Research Centre CIAIMBITAL, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain; Research Centre CIAIMBITAL, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - A Molina-Miras
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Research Centre CIAIMBITAL, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain; Research Centre CIAIMBITAL, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - Y Soriano-Jerez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Research Centre CIAIMBITAL, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - A Sánchez-Mirón
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Research Centre CIAIMBITAL, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain; Research Centre CIAIMBITAL, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - S Seoane
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, 48940 Leioa, Spain; Technology and Research Centre for Experimental Marine Biology and Biotechnology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), 48620 Plentzia, Spain
| | - F García-Camacho
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Research Centre CIAIMBITAL, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain; Research Centre CIAIMBITAL, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain.
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Morales-Amador A, Molina-Miras A, López-Rosales L, Sánchez-Mirón A, García-Camacho F, Souto ML, Fernández JJ. Isolation and Structural Elucidation of New Amphidinol Analogues from Amphidinium carterae Cultivated in a Pilot-Scale Photobioreactor. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:432. [PMID: 34436271 PMCID: PMC8399002 DOI: 10.3390/md19080432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The demand for valuable products from dinoflagellate biotechnology has increased remarkably in recent years due to their many prospective applications. However, there remain many challenges that need to be addressed in order to make dinoflagellate bioactives a commercial reality. In this article, we describe the technical feasibility of producing and recovering amphidinol analogues (AMs) excreted into a culture broth of Amphidinium carterae ACRN03, successfully cultured in an LED-illuminated pilot-scale (80 L) bubble column photobioreactor operated in fed-batch mode with a pulse feeding strategy. We report on the isolation of new structurally related AMs, amphidinol 24 (1, AM24), amphidinol 25 (2, AM25) and amphidinol 26 (3, AM26), from a singular fraction resulting from the downstream processing. Their planar structures were elucidated by extensive NMR and HRMS analysis, whereas the relative configuration of the C-32→C-47 bis-tetrahydropyran core was confirmed to be antipodal in accord with the recently revised configuration of AM3. The hemolytic activities of the new metabolites and other related derivatives were evaluated, and structure-activity conclusions were established. Their isolation was based on a straightforward and high-performance bioprocess that could be suitable for the commercial development of AMs or other high-value compounds from shear sensitive dinoflagellates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrián Morales-Amador
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González (IUBO AG), Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), Avda. Astrofísico F. Sánchez 2, 38206 La Laguna, Spain;
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), Avda. Astrofísico F. Sánchez 2, 38206 La Laguna, Spain
| | - Alejandro Molina-Miras
- Chemical Engineering Department, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain; (A.M.-M.); (L.L.-R.); (A.S.-M.); (F.G.-C.)
- Research Center CIAIMBITAL, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - Lorenzo López-Rosales
- Chemical Engineering Department, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain; (A.M.-M.); (L.L.-R.); (A.S.-M.); (F.G.-C.)
- Research Center CIAIMBITAL, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - Asterio Sánchez-Mirón
- Chemical Engineering Department, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain; (A.M.-M.); (L.L.-R.); (A.S.-M.); (F.G.-C.)
- Research Center CIAIMBITAL, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - Francisco García-Camacho
- Chemical Engineering Department, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain; (A.M.-M.); (L.L.-R.); (A.S.-M.); (F.G.-C.)
- Research Center CIAIMBITAL, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - María L. Souto
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González (IUBO AG), Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), Avda. Astrofísico F. Sánchez 2, 38206 La Laguna, Spain;
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), Avda. Astrofísico F. Sánchez 2, 38206 La Laguna, Spain
| | - José J. Fernández
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González (IUBO AG), Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), Avda. Astrofísico F. Sánchez 2, 38206 La Laguna, Spain;
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), Avda. Astrofísico F. Sánchez 2, 38206 La Laguna, Spain
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Song Y, Shen L, Zhang L, Li J, Chen M. Study of a hydrodynamic threshold system for controlling dinoflagellate blooms in reservoirs. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 278:116822. [PMID: 33677223 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Hydrodynamic conditions often affect the eutrophication process and play a key role in algal growth in reservoirs. A promising approach for controlling algal blooms in reservoirs is to create adverse hydrodynamic conditions by implementing reservoir operation strategies. However, research on this method is still nascent and does not support practical applications due to the lack of quantitative hydrodynamic thresholds. In this paper, field observations of algal growth from April 2015 to August 2016 were conducted, and a three-dimensional (3D) model that couples hydrodynamics and water temperatures for the Zipingpu Reservoir was established. Low flow velocities (V) and low Reynolds numbers (Re) in the Longchi tributary are favorable for dinoflagellate growth and accumulation, which can explain why dinoflagellate blooms are more likely to occur in the tributary. A temperature of 18-22 °C is considered a precondition for Peridiniopsis penardii blooms, suggesting that freshwater dinoflagellate species may prefer lower temperatures than marine dinoflagellate species. Shallow mixing layer depth (Zmix) is conducive to Peridiniopsis penardii gathering in the upper water layers and promotes growth. The shallow euphotic layer depth (Zeu) was speculated to promote the dominance of this species by stimulating its heterotrophy and inhibiting other algal autotrophy. Furthermore, a boundary line analysis was introduced to characterize the relationships between algal biomass and hydrodynamic indicators. Thus, the thresholds for V, Re, and Zmix/Zeu were determined to be 0.034 m s-1, 6.7 × 104, and 1.7, respectively. Either accelerating horizontal flow to exceed the thresholds of V and Re or facilitating vertical mixing to exceed the threshold of Zmix/Zeu can prevent dinoflagellate blooms. Therefore, the summarized hydrodynamic threshold system is suggested to be an effective standard for controlling dinoflagellate blooms in the reservoir. Moreover, this study can provide a useful reference for understanding the mechanism of freshwater dinoflagellate blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Song
- Institute of Ecology and Environment, State Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, College of Water Resource & Hydropower, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China; Department of Mechanical Engineering and St. Anthony Falls Laboratory, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Lian Shen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and St. Anthony Falls Laboratory, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Linglei Zhang
- Institute of Ecology and Environment, State Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, College of Water Resource & Hydropower, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
| | - Jia Li
- Institute of Ecology and Environment, State Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, College of Water Resource & Hydropower, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Min Chen
- Institute of Ecology and Environment, State Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, College of Water Resource & Hydropower, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
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Ding N, Li C, Wang T, Guo M, Mohsin A, Zhang S. Evaluation of an enclosed air-lift photobioreactor (ALPBR) for biomass and lipid biosynthesis of microalgal cells grown under fluid-induced shear stress. BIOTECHNOL BIOTEC EQ 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/13102818.2020.1856717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ning Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Chao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Tao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Meijin Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Ali Mohsin
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Siliang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, PR China
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Molina-Miras A, López-Rosales L, Cerón-García M, Sánchez-Mirón A, García-Camacho F, Contreras-Gómez A, Molina-Grima E. A new approach to finding optimal centrifugation conditions for shear-sensitive microalgae. ALGAL RES 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2019.101677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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López-Rosales L, Sánchez-Mirón A, Contreras-Gómez A, García-Camacho F, Battaglia F, Zhao L, Molina-Grima E. Characterization of bubble column photobioreactors for shear-sensitive microalgae culture. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2019; 275:1-9. [PMID: 30572257 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2018.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2018] [Revised: 12/04/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The shear-sensitive marine algal dinoflagellate Karlodinium veneficum was grown in a cylindrical bubble column photobioreactor with an internal diameter of 0.044 m. Initial liquid height varied from 0.5 to 1.75 m, superficial gas velocities from 0.0014 to 0.0057 ms-1, and nozzle diameter from 1 to 2.5 mm. Computational fluid dynamics was used to characterize the flow hydrodynamics and energy dissipation rates. Experimental gas holdup and volumetric mass transfer coefficient strongly depended on the liquid height and correlated well with the Froude number. Energy dissipation near the head space (EDtop) was one order of magnitude higher than the average energy dissipation in the whole reactor (EDwhole), and the value in the sparger zone (EDspar) was one order of magnitude higher than EDtop. Cultures of K. veneficum were limited by CO2 transfer at low EDwhole and severely stressed above a critical value of EDwhole.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Asterio Sánchez-Mirón
- Dept. of Chemical Engineering, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain; Research Center in Agrifood Biotechnology, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain.
| | | | - Francisco García-Camacho
- Dept. of Chemical Engineering, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain; Research Center in Agrifood Biotechnology, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - Francine Battaglia
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University at Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
| | - Lei Zhao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Emilio Molina-Grima
- Dept. of Chemical Engineering, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain; Research Center in Agrifood Biotechnology, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
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7
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Chu WL, Phang SM. Bioactive Compounds from Microalgae and Their Potential Applications as Pharmaceuticals and Nutraceuticals. GRAND CHALLENGES IN ALGAE BIOTECHNOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-25233-5_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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8
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Paik SM, Jin E, Sim SJ, Jeon NL. Vibration-induced stress priming during seed culture increases microalgal biomass in high shear field-cultivation. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2018; 254:340-346. [PMID: 29397260 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2018.01.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2017] [Revised: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Vibrational wave treatment has been used to increase proliferation of microalgae. When directly applied at large scale, however, turbulence can offset positive effects of vibration on microalgae proliferation. Moreover, severe hydrodynamic shear fields in the bioreactor decrease cell viability that detrimentally influence maximum yieldable biomass. In this study, vibration pretreatment (between 10-30 Hz and 0.15-0.45 G) was used to prime the cells for enhanced biomass. When exposed to 10 Hz at 0.15 G for 72 h and inoculated in baffled flasks of large shear fields (0.292 Pa for the average wall shear force (aveWSF) and 184 s-1 for the average shear strain rate (aveSSR)), microalgae showed 27% increase in biomass as well as 39% increase in corresponding amount of heterologous protein (i.e. GFP-3HA). Our results show that stress primed microalgae with vibrations can lead to improved proliferation that results in increased biomass production at industrial scale bioprocesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang-Min Paik
- Interdisciplinary Program for Bioengineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - EonSeon Jin
- Department of Life Science, College of Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Jun Sim
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02846, Republic of Korea
| | - Noo Li Jeon
- Interdisciplinary Program for Bioengineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea; School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea; Institute of Advanced Mechanics and Design, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea.
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López-Rosales L, Sánchez-Mirón A, García-Camacho F, Place AR, Chisti Y, Molina-Grima E. Pilot-scale outdoor photobioreactor culture of the marine dinoflagellate Karlodinium veneficum: Production of a karlotoxins-rich extract. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2018; 253:94-104. [PMID: 29331827 PMCID: PMC6446550 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2017.12.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Revised: 12/28/2017] [Accepted: 12/29/2017] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A pilot-scale bioprocess was developed for the production of karlotoxin-enriched extracts of the marine algal dinoflagellate Karlodinium veneficum. A bubble column and a flat-panel photobioreactors (80-281 L) were used for comparative assessment of growth. Flow hydrodynamics and energy dissipation rates (EDR) in the bioreactors were characterized through robust computational fluid dynamic simulations. All cultures were conducted monoseptically outdoors. Bubble column (maximum cell productivity in semicontinuous operation of 58 × 103 cell mL-1 day-1) proved to be a better culture system for this alga. In both reactors, the local EDR near the headspace, and in the sparger zone, were more than one order of magnitude higher than the average value in the whole reactor (=4 × 10-3 W kg-1). Extraction of the culture and further purification resulted in the desired KTXs extracts. Apparently, the alga produced three congeners KTXs: KmTx-10 and its sulfated derivative (sulfo-KmTx-10) and KmTx-12. All congeners possessed hemolytic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- L López-Rosales
- Chemical Engineering Area, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - A Sánchez-Mirón
- Chemical Engineering Area, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain.
| | - F García-Camacho
- Chemical Engineering Area, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - A R Place
- Institute of Marine & Environmental Technology, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, 701 E. Pratt Street, Baltimore, MD 21202, USA
| | - Yusuf Chisti
- School of Engineering, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - E Molina-Grima
- Chemical Engineering Area, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
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Verma R, Kumar R, Mehan L, Srivastava A. Modified conventional bioreactor for microalgae cultivation. J Biosci Bioeng 2018; 125:224-230. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2017.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Revised: 08/11/2017] [Accepted: 09/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Molina-Miras A, Sánchez-Mirón A, García-Camacho F, Molina-Grima E. CFD-aided optimization of a laboratory-scale centrifugation for a shear-sensitive insect cell line. FOOD AND BIOPRODUCTS PROCESSING 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbp.2017.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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12
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López-Rosales L, García-Camacho F, Sánchez-Mirón A, Contreras-Gómez A, Molina-Grima E. Modeling shear-sensitive dinoflagellate microalgae growth in bubble column photobioreactors. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2017; 245:250-257. [PMID: 28892698 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2017.08.161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Revised: 08/20/2017] [Accepted: 08/27/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The shear-sensitive dinoflagellate microalga Karlodinium veneficum was grown in a sparged bubble column photobioreactor. The influence of mass transfer and shear stress on cell growth and physiology (concentration of reactive oxygen species, membrane fluidity and photosynthetic efficiency) was studied, and a model describing cell growth in term of mass transfer and culture parameters (nozzle sparger diameter, air flow rate, and culture height) was developed. The results show that mass transfer limits cell growth at low air-flow rates, whereas the shear stress produced by the presence of bubbles is critically detrimental for air flow rates above 0.1vvm. The model developed in this paper adequately represents the growth of K. veneficum. Moreover, the parameters of the model indicate that bubble rupture is much more harmful for cells than bubble formation.
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López-Rosales L, García-Camacho F, Sánchez-Mirón A, Martín Beato E, Chisti Y, Molina Grima E. Pilot-scale bubble column photobioreactor culture of a marine dinoflagellate microalga illuminated with light emission diodes. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2016; 216:845-855. [PMID: 27318163 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2016.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Revised: 06/07/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Production of biomass of the shear-sensitive marine algal dinoflagellate Karlodinium veneficum was successfully scaled-up to 80L using a bubble column photobioreactor. The scale factor exceeded 28,500. Light-emission diodes were used as the light source. The diel irradiance profile mimicked the outdoor profile of natural sunlight. The final cell concentration in the absence of nutrient limitation in the scaled-up photobioreactor was nearly 12×10(5)cellsmL(-1), or the same as in laboratory culture systems. The pH-controlled culture (pH=8.5) was always carbon-sufficient. The culture was mixed pneumatically by using a superficial air velocity of 1.9×10(-3)ms(-1) and the temperature was controlled at 21±1°C.
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Affiliation(s)
- L López-Rosales
- Chemical Engineering Area, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - F García-Camacho
- Chemical Engineering Area, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain.
| | - A Sánchez-Mirón
- Chemical Engineering Area, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - E Martín Beato
- Chemical Engineering Area, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - Yusuf Chisti
- School of Engineering, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - E Molina Grima
- Chemical Engineering Area, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
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