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Peng C, Sui Y, Fang C, Sun H, Liu W, Li X, Qu C, Li W, Liu J, Wu C. Highly sensitive and selective electrochemical biosensor using odorant-binding protein to detect aldehydes. Anal Chim Acta 2024; 1318:342932. [PMID: 39067919 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2024.342932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2024] [Revised: 06/20/2024] [Accepted: 06/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
Recently, various biosensors based on odorant-binding proteins (OBPs) were developed for the detection of odorants and pheromones. However, important data gaps exist regarding the sensitive and selective detection of aldehydes with various carbon numbers. In this work, an OBP2a-based electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) biosensor was developed by immobilizing OBP2a on a gold interdigital electrode, and was characterized by EIS and atomic force microscopy. EIS responses showed the OBP2a-based biosensor was highly sensitive to citronellal, lily aldehyde, octanal, and decanal (detection limit of 10-11 mol/L), and was selective towards aldehydes compared with interfering odorants such as small-molecule alcohols and fatty acids (selectivity coefficients lower than 0.15). Moreover, the OBP2a-based biosensor exhibited high repeatability (relative standard deviation: 1.6%-9.1 %, n = 3 for each odorant), stability (NIC declined by 3.6 % on 6th day), and recovery (91.2%-96.6 % on three real samples). More specifically, the sensitivity of the biosensor to aldehydes was positively correlated to the molecular weight and the heterocyclic molecule structure of the odorants. These results proved the availability and the potential usage of the OBP2a-based EIS biosensor for the rapid and sensitive detection of aldehydes in aspects such as medical diagnostics, food and favor analysis, and environmental monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cong Peng
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Odor Pollution Control, Tianjin Academy of Eco-environmental Sciences, Tianjin, 300191, China
| | - Yutong Sui
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Chaohua Fang
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Hongxu Sun
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Wenxin Liu
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Xinying Li
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Chen Qu
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Wenhui Li
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Jiemin Liu
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China; Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication, Beijing, 102600, China
| | - Chuandong Wu
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China.
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2
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Wang J, Zhou H, Liang R, Qin W. Chronopotentiometric Nanopore Sensor Based on a Stimulus-Responsive Molecularly Imprinted Polymer for Label-Free Dual-Biomarker Detection. Anal Chem 2024; 96:9370-9378. [PMID: 38683892 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c05817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
The development of sensors for detection of biomarkers exhibits an exciting potential in diagnosis of diseases. Herein, we propose a novel electrochemical sensing strategy for label-free dual-biomarker detection, which is based on the combination of stimulus-responsive molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP)-modified nanopores and a polymeric membrane chronopotentiometric sensor. The ion fluxes galvanostatically imposed on the sensing membrane surface can be blocked by the recognition reaction between the target biomarker in the sample solution and the stimulus-responsive MIP receptor in the nanopores, thus causing a potential change. By using two external stimuli (i.e., pH and temperature), the recognition abilities of the stimulus-responsive MIP receptor can be effectively modulated so that dual-biomarker label-free chronopotentiometric detection can be achieved. Using alpha fetoprotein (AFP) and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) as model biomarkers, the proposed sensor offers detection limits of 0.17 and 0.42 ng/mL for AFP and PSA, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junhao Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research (YIC), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS); Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, YICCAS, Yantai, Shandong 264003, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Huihui Zhou
- The Affiliated Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital of Qingdao University, Yantai, Shandong 264099, China
| | - Rongning Liang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research (YIC), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS); Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, YICCAS, Yantai, Shandong 264003, China
| | - Wei Qin
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research (YIC), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS); Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, YICCAS, Yantai, Shandong 264003, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao Marine Science and Technology Center, Qingdao, Shandong 266237, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong 266071, China
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3
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Bhambri H, Mandal SK. Strategic Design of Non-d 10 Luminescent Metal-Organic Frameworks as Dual-Mode Ultrafast and Selective Sensing Platforms for Aldehydes at the ppb Level. Inorg Chem 2024; 63:8685-8697. [PMID: 38687402 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.4c00214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Utilizing a cautious design of luminescent MOFs of non-d10 divalent transition metals based on two factors (metal nodes in an octahedral geometry to minimize nonradiative energy dissipation and tailored organic chromophores), this work reports {[Ni2(oxdz)2(tpbn)]}n (1), {[Ni2(oxdz)2(tphn)]}n (2), and {[Ni2(oxdz)2(tpon)]}n (3), synthesized at room temperature, varying the spacer length of tpbn/tphn/tpon (four, six, and eight CH2 groups, respectively). This subtle change in 1-3 is correlated to their hydrophobicity and polarizing power via water vapor sorption and selective and sensitive detection of aldehydes at the ppb level, respectively. A decrease in water vapor uptake (14.8, 8.95, and 3.19 mmol g-1 for 1-3, respectively) is observed with an increase in their hydrophobicity. On the other hand, the solution phase detection limits of acetaldehyde and benzaldehyde (2.42 and 6.71 ppb for 1, 2.77 and 4.08 ppb for 2, and 10.35 and 10.4 ppb for 3, respectively) show a similar trend for their polarizing power. The best performance of 1 is expanded to the vapor-phase detection of acetaldehyde (297% luminescence enhancement) under different pH conditions. The second mode of detection of acetaldehyde via the metal-centered electrochemical behavior of 1 provides detection limits of 38.2 and 71.5 ppb at pH 7 and 13, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Himanshi Bhambri
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Sector 81, Manauli PO, S.A.S. Nagar, Mohali, Punjab 140306, India
| | - Sanjay K Mandal
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Sector 81, Manauli PO, S.A.S. Nagar, Mohali, Punjab 140306, India
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Ramirez P, Cervera J, Nasir S, Ali M, Ensinger W, Mafe S. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy of membranes with nanofluidic conical pores. J Colloid Interface Sci 2024; 655:876-885. [PMID: 37979293 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2023.11.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/20/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) constitutes a useful tool in membrane science and technology because it provides valuable structural and functional information. The different arcs observed in the impedance spectra permit to decouple and understand distinct physico-chemical phenomena occurring under operating conditions. By using EIS techniques, we have characterized here multipore asymmetric membranes with conical pores that exhibit a broad range of ionic conduction properties, including current rectification. These properties can be modulated by tuning the electrical interaction between the charges functionalized on the pore surface and the nanoconfined ionic solution. In particular, the membrane electrical response is studied as a function of the amplitude and frequency of the external voltage signal, the electrolyte type and concentration, and the solution pH. Remarkably, significant chemical inductance effects are observed. The scalability and biocompatibility of these pores suggest good potential for use in hybrid biodevices and interfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricio Ramirez
- Departament de Física Aplicada, Universitat Politècnica de València, E-46022 València, Spain.
| | - Javier Cervera
- Departament de Física de la Terra i Termodinàmica, Universitat de València, E-46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - Saima Nasir
- Materials Research Department, GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung, D-64291 Darmstadt, Germany; Department of Material- and Geo-Sciences, Technische Universität Darmstadt, D-64287 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Mubarak Ali
- Materials Research Department, GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung, D-64291 Darmstadt, Germany; Department of Material- and Geo-Sciences, Technische Universität Darmstadt, D-64287 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Ensinger
- Department of Material- and Geo-Sciences, Technische Universität Darmstadt, D-64287 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Salvador Mafe
- Departament de Física Aplicada, Universitat Politècnica de València, E-46022 València, Spain; Departament de Física de la Terra i Termodinàmica, Universitat de València, E-46100 Burjassot, Spain
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Arya SS, Dias SB, Jelinek HF, Hadjileontiadis LJ, Pappa AM. The convergence of traditional and digital biomarkers through AI-assisted biosensing: A new era in translational diagnostics? Biosens Bioelectron 2023; 235:115387. [PMID: 37229842 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2023.115387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Advances in consumer electronics, alongside the fields of microfluidics and nanotechnology have brought to the fore low-cost wearable/portable smart devices. Although numerous smart devices that track digital biomarkers have been successfully translated from bench-to-bedside, only a few follow the same fate when it comes to track traditional biomarkers. Current practices still involve laboratory-based tests, followed by blood collection, conducted in a clinical setting as they require trained personnel and specialized equipment. In fact, real-time, passive/active and robust sensing of physiological and behavioural data from patients that can feed artificial intelligence (AI)-based models can significantly improve decision-making, diagnosis and treatment at the point-of-procedure, by circumventing conventional methods of sampling, and in person investigation by expert pathologists, who are scarce in developing countries. This review brings together conventional and digital biomarker sensing through portable and autonomous miniaturized devices. We first summarise the technological advances in each field vs the current clinical practices and we conclude by merging the two worlds of traditional and digital biomarkers through AI/ML technologies to improve patient diagnosis and treatment. The fundamental role, limitations and prospects of AI in realizing this potential and enhancing the existing technologies to facilitate the development and clinical translation of "point-of-care" (POC) diagnostics is finally showcased.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sagar S Arya
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Sofia B Dias
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Interdisciplinary Center for Human Performance, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Herbert F Jelinek
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Healthcare Engineering Innovation Center (HEIC), Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P O Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Leontios J Hadjileontiadis
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Healthcare Engineering Innovation Center (HEIC), Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P O Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Anna-Maria Pappa
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Healthcare Engineering Innovation Center (HEIC), Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P O Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK.
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6
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Liang L, Qin F, Wang S, Wu J, Li R, Wang Z, Ren M, Liu D, Wang D, Astruc D. Overview of the materials design and sensing strategies of nanopore devices. Coord Chem Rev 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2022.214998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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7
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Abstract
This paper provides an overview of recent developments in the field of volatile organic compound (VOC) sensors, which are finding uses in healthcare, safety, environmental monitoring, food and agriculture, oil industry, and other fields. It starts by briefly explaining the basics of VOC sensing and reviewing the currently available and quickly progressing VOC sensing approaches. It then discusses the main trends in materials' design with special attention to nanostructuring and nanohybridization. Emerging sensing materials and strategies are highlighted and their involvement in the different types of sensing technologies is discussed, including optical, electrical, and gravimetric sensors. The review also provides detailed discussions about the main limitations of the field and offers potential solutions. The status of the field and suggestions of promising directions for future development are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Khatib
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Hossam Haick
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
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8
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Wasilewski T, Brito NF, Szulczyński B, Wojciechowski M, Buda N, Melo ACA, Kamysz W, Gębicki J. Olfactory Receptor-based Biosensors as Potential Future Tools in Medical Diagnosis. Trends Analyt Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2022.116599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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9
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10
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Hirata Y, Oda H, Osaki T, Takeuchi S. Biohybrid sensor for odor detection. LAB ON A CHIP 2021; 21:2643-2657. [PMID: 34132291 DOI: 10.1039/d1lc00233c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Biohybrid odorant sensors that directly integrate a biological olfactory system have been increasingly studied and are suggested to be the next generation of ultrasensitive sensors by taking advantage of the sensitivity and selectivity of living organisms. In this review, we provide a detailed description of the recent developments of biohybrid odorant sensors, especially considering the requisites for their perspective of on-site applications. We introduce the methodologies to effectively capture the biological signals from olfactory systems by readout devices, and describe the essential properties regarding the gaseous detection, stability, quality control, and portability. Moreover, we address the recent progress on multiple odorant recognition using multiple sensors as well as the current screening approaches for pairs of orphan receptors and ligands necessary for the extension of the currently available range of biohybrid sensors. Finally, we discuss our perspectives for the future for the development of practical odorant sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Hirata
- Department of Mechano-Informatics, Graduate School of Information Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan.
| | - Haruka Oda
- Department of Mechano-Informatics, Graduate School of Information Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan.
| | - Toshihisa Osaki
- Artificial Cell Membrane Systems Group, Kanagawa Institute of Industrial Science and Technology, 3-2-1 Sakado, Takatsu-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 213-0012, Japan and Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan
| | - Shoji Takeuchi
- Department of Mechano-Informatics, Graduate School of Information Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan. and Artificial Cell Membrane Systems Group, Kanagawa Institute of Industrial Science and Technology, 3-2-1 Sakado, Takatsu-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 213-0012, Japan and Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan
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11
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Gonçalves F, Ribeiro A, Silva C, Cavaco-Paulo A. Biotechnological applications of mammalian odorant-binding proteins. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2021; 41:441-455. [PMID: 33541154 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2020.1853672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The olfactory system of mammals allows the detection and discrimination of thousands of odors from the environment. In mammals, odorant-binding proteins (OBPs) are considered responsible to carry odorant molecules across the aqueous nasal mucus to the olfactory receptors (ORs). The three-dimensional structure of these proteins presents eight antiparallel β-sheets and a short α-helical segment close to the C terminus, typical of the lipocalins family. The great ability of OBPs to bind differentiated ligand molecules has driven the research to understand the mechanisms underlying the OBP function in nature and the development of advanced biotechnological applications. This review describes the role of mammalian OBPs in the olfactory perception, highlighting the influence of several key parameters (amino acids, temperature, ionic strength, and pH) in the formation of the OBP/ligand complex. The information from the literature regarding OBP structure, affinity, the strength of binding, and stability inspiring the development of several applications herein detailed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filipa Gonçalves
- Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho - Campus de Gualtar, Braga, Portugal
| | - Artur Ribeiro
- Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho - Campus de Gualtar, Braga, Portugal
| | - Carla Silva
- Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho - Campus de Gualtar, Braga, Portugal
| | - Artur Cavaco-Paulo
- Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho - Campus de Gualtar, Braga, Portugal
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12
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Yang C, Yang C, Li X, Zhang A, He G, Wu Q, Liu X, Huang S, Huang X, Cui G, Hu N, Xie X, Hang T. Liquid-like Polymer Coating as a Promising Candidate for Reducing Electrode Contamination and Noise in Complex Biofluids. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:4450-4462. [PMID: 33443399 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c18419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Biosensors that can automatically and continuously track fluctuations in biomarker levels over time are essential for real-time sensing in biomedical and environmental applications. Although many electrochemical sensors have been developed to quickly and sensitively monitor biomarkers, their sensing stability in complex biofluids is disturbed by unavoidable nonspecific adhesion of proteins or bacteria. Recently, various substrate surface modification techniques have been developed to resist biofouling, yet functionalization of electrodes in sensors to be anti-biofouling is rarely achieved. Here, we report an integrated three-electrode system (ITES) modified with a "liquid-like" polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) brush that can continuously and stably monitor reactive oxygen species (ROS) in complex fluids. Based on the slippery "liquid-like" coating, the modified ITES surface could prevent the adhesion of various liquids as well as the adhesion of proteins and bacteria. The "liquid-like" coating does not significantly affect the sensitivity of the electrode in detecting ROS, while the sensing performance could remain stable and free of bacterial attack even after 3 days of incubation with bacteria. In addition, the PDMS brush-modified ITES (PMITES) could continuously record ROS levels in bacterial-rich fluids with excellent stability over 24 h due to the reduced bacterial contamination on the electrode surface. This technique offers new opportunities for continuous and real-time monitoring of biomarkers that will facilitate the development of advanced sensors for biomedical and environmental applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengduan Yang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University; State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Cheng Yang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University; State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Xiangling Li
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University; State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Aihua Zhang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University; State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Gen He
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University; State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Qianni Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Xingxing Liu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University; State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Shuang Huang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University; State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Xinshuo Huang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University; State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Guofeng Cui
- School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Ning Hu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University; State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Xi Xie
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University; State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Tian Hang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University; State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
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13
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Szunerits S, Boukherroub R, Vasilescu A. Electrochemical biosensing with odorant binding proteins. Methods Enzymol 2020; 642:345-369. [PMID: 32828260 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2020.04.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The development of sensors that mimic the natural smell sensing mechanism and selectively recognizes the odorants remains highly challenging. Electrochemical based sensing approaches aiming at monitoring molecular recognition events between surface receptors and analytes in solution or in the gas phase, are one possible transduction platforms among others for the construction of an artificial nose. The principle of electrochemical detection lies on the shift of the potential/current during the recognition event, which is proportional to the concentration of the analyte, in our case the odorant. A tremendous amount of efforts has been put into making electrochemical sensors sensitive and selective to the analyte of interest through the use of nanomaterials, development of different detection schemes and application of innovative receptor ligands for selective detection of the analyte. There have been significant advances in electrochemical based odorant sensing by using odorant binding proteins (OBP) as surface receptors, small soluble proteins present in nasal mucus at millimolar concentrations where the hydrophobic binding pocket gives the ability to reversibly bind odorant molecules. As OBPs are robust and easy to produce receptors, they are good candidates for the design of biosensors. In this chapter, we focus on the progress made on the detection of odorant molecules using OBPs as a bioreceptor and electrochemistry as a transduction method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Szunerits
- University of Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, Université Polytechnique Hauts-de-France, UMR 8520-IEMN, Lille, France.
| | - Rabah Boukherroub
- University of Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, Université Polytechnique Hauts-de-France, UMR 8520-IEMN, Lille, France
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Ding D, Gao P, Ma Q, Wang D, Xia F. Biomolecule-Functionalized Solid-State Ion Nanochannels/Nanopores: Features and Techniques. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2019; 15:e1804878. [PMID: 30756522 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201804878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Solid-state ion nanochannels/nanopores, the biomimetic products of biological ion channels, are promising materials in real-world applications due to their robust mechanical and controllable chemical properties. Functionalizations of solid-state ion nanochannels/nanopores by biomolecules pave a wide way for the introduction of varied properties from biomolecules to solid-state ion nanochannels/nanopores, making them smart in response to analytes or external stimuli and regulating the transport of ions/molecules. In this review, two features for nanochannels/nanopores functionalized by biomolecules are abstracted, i.e., specificity and signal amplification. Both of the two features are demonstrated from three kinds of nanochannels/nanopores: nucleic acid-functionalized nanochannels/nanopores, protein-functionalized nanochannels/nanopores, and small biomolecule-functionalized nanochannels/nanopores, respectively. Meanwhile, the fundamental mechanisms of these combinations between biomolecules and nanochannels/nanopores are explored, providing reasonable constructs for applications in sensing, transport, and energy conversion. And then, the techniques of functionalizations and the basic principle about biomolecules onto the solid-state ion nanochannels/nanopores are summarized. Finally, some views about the future developments of the biomolecule-functionalized nanochannels/nanopores are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Defang Ding
- Engineering Research Center of Nano-Geomaterials of Ministry of Education, Faculty of Materials Science and Chemistry, China University of Geosciences (CUG), 388 Lumo Road, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
| | - Pengcheng Gao
- Engineering Research Center of Nano-Geomaterials of Ministry of Education, Faculty of Materials Science and Chemistry, China University of Geosciences (CUG), 388 Lumo Road, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
| | - Qun Ma
- Engineering Research Center of Nano-Geomaterials of Ministry of Education, Faculty of Materials Science and Chemistry, China University of Geosciences (CUG), 388 Lumo Road, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
| | - Dagui Wang
- Engineering Research Center of Nano-Geomaterials of Ministry of Education, Faculty of Materials Science and Chemistry, China University of Geosciences (CUG), 388 Lumo Road, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
| | - Fan Xia
- Engineering Research Center of Nano-Geomaterials of Ministry of Education, Faculty of Materials Science and Chemistry, China University of Geosciences (CUG), 388 Lumo Road, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Material Processing and Die & Mould Technology, School of Material Sciences and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
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15
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Fu Y, Tan H, Wu X, Wu X, Yang Y, Gao Y, Liu R, Qi M, Chen X, Ning Y, Sun W, Chang N, Ma J, Cheng K, Yang H, Li Q, Wang P, Wu C, Xian H, Wang L. Combination of medical and health care based on digital smartphone-powered photochemical dongle for renal function management. Electrophoresis 2019; 42:1043-1049. [PMID: 31087687 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201900136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Revised: 05/01/2019] [Accepted: 05/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Currently, the global healthcare market is increasing at high speed with the impendent global aging issue. Healthcare Industry 4.0 has emerged as an efficient solution towards the aging issue since it was integrated with ubiquitous medical sensors, big health processing platform, high bandwidth, speed technologies, and medical services, etc. It is believed to fulfil the requirement of the tremendously growing health market. The acquisition of medical data acts as the dominant precondition to implement the Healthcare Industry 4.0. In the same way, the widely available smartphone could serve as the best biomedical information collect station. In this study, a smartphone-powered photochemical dongle is demonstrated to precisely estimate blood creatinine from the fingertip blood, which works as a highly compact reflectance spectral analyzer with an enzymatically dry chemical test strip. Comparing with conventional laboratory facility for the evaluation and treatment of chronic kidney disease (CKD), it implemented the platform of point care with agreed accuracy. In order to estimate the efficiency of treatment and recovery of the CKD, the proposed photochemical dongle would provide a flexible and rapid platform for point of care. Furthermore, the proposed measured technology is very promising method for remote CKD management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusheng Fu
- School of Information and Communication Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Haiyan Tan
- School of Information and Communication Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Xiujian Wu
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Yongchuan Hospital Affiliated to Chongqing Medical University, Yongchuan, Chongqing, P. R. China
| | - Xiaohe Wu
- Jiangxi Provincial People's Hospital, Nanchang, Jiangxi, P. R. China
| | - Yongzheng Yang
- The First People's Hospital of Neijiang, Neijiang, Sichuan, P. R. China
| | - Yanling Gao
- The Second People's Hospital of Yibin, Yibin City, Sichuan Province, P. R. China
| | - Ruowei Liu
- Nanchong Central Hospital, Nanchong City, Sichuan Province, P. R. China
| | - Min Qi
- Luoyang Central Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Luoyang City, Henan, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoyun Chen
- Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture People's Hospital, Zibo, Shandong, P. R. China
| | - Yaochao Ning
- The First Hospital of Zibo, Zibo, Shandong, P. R. China
| | - Weidong Sun
- Zigong Fourth People's Hospital, Zigong City, Sichuan, P. R. China
| | - Nianhuan Chang
- Yuncheng Central Hospital, Yuncheng City, Shanxi, P. R. China
| | - Junjie Ma
- Suining Central Hospital, Suining City, Sichuan, P. R. China
| | - Kang Cheng
- The Affiliated Hospital of Northwest University (Xi'an NO. 3 hospital), Xi'an, Shaanxi, P. R. China
| | - Hongni Yang
- Department of Geratology, Hospital of Xinjiang Province, Urumqi, Xinjang, P. R. China
| | - Qing Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, P. R. China
| | - Ping Wang
- Department of Otolaryngology, Nuclear Industry 416 Hospital, The second Affiliated Hospital of Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, P. R. China
| | - Chaoran Wu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shenzhen People's hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Hong Xian
- West P. R. China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, P. R. China
| | - Li Wang
- The People's Hospital Of Lesh, Leshan City, Sichuan Province, P. R. China
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16
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Equivalent circuit models for a biomembrane impedance sensor and analysis of electrochemical impedance spectra based on support vector regression. Med Biol Eng Comput 2019; 57:1515-1524. [PMID: 30941674 PMCID: PMC6592963 DOI: 10.1007/s11517-019-01970-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
In this study, an electrochemical impedance biosensor was developed as a simple and fast method for real-time monitoring of biofilm binding properties via continuous impedance spectroscopy. To prepare the sensing membrane, cells were immobilized onto gold electrodes with nitrocellulose membranes. Different cell growth features were measured with the impedance instrument and analyzed using an equivalent model for data fitting and support vector regression (SVR) for data processing. The collected impedance spectra revealed that the binding attachment areas of cells differ depending on the cell density. Our results demonstrate the usefulness and feasibility of training our impedance-based sensor with a small amount of data to predict the effective area of different biofilms (GE, NGE, and CNGE), with a prediction error of 9.8%. Graphical abstract ![]()
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Hurot C, Brenet S, Buhot A, Barou E, Belloir C, Briand L, Hou Y. Highly sensitive olfactory biosensors for the detection of volatile organic compounds by surface plasmon resonance imaging. Biosens Bioelectron 2019; 123:230-236. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2018.08.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2018] [Revised: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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18
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Pelosi P, Zhu J, Knoll W. Odorant-Binding Proteins as Sensing Elements for Odour Monitoring. SENSORS 2018; 18:s18103248. [PMID: 30262737 PMCID: PMC6210013 DOI: 10.3390/s18103248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Revised: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Odour perception has been the object of fast growing research interest in the last three decades. Parallel to the study of the corresponding biological systems, attempts are being made to model the olfactory system with electronic devices. Such projects range from the fabrication of individual sensors, tuned to specific chemicals of interest, to the design of multipurpose smell detectors using arrays of sensors assembled in a sort of artificial nose. Recently, proteins have attracted increasing interest as sensing elements. In particular, soluble olfaction proteins, including odorant-binding proteins (OBPs) of vertebrates and insects, chemosensory proteins (CSPs) and Niemann-Pick type C2 (NPC2) proteins possess interesting characteristics for their use in sensing devices for odours. In fact, thanks to their compact structure, their soluble nature and small size, they are extremely stable to high temperature, refractory to proteolysis and resistant to organic solvents. Moreover, thanks to the availability of many structures solved both as apo-proteins and in complexes with some ligands, it is feasible to design mutants by replacing residues in the binding sites with the aim of synthesising proteins with better selectivity and improved physical properties, as demonstrated in a number of cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Pelosi
- Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Biosensor Technologies, Konrad-Lorenzstraße, 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
| | - Jiao Zhu
- Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Biosensor Technologies, Konrad-Lorenzstraße, 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
| | - Wolfgang Knoll
- Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Biosensor Technologies, Konrad-Lorenzstraße, 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
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19
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JIANG XJ, LIANG RN, QIN W. Research Advances in Ion Channel-based Electrochemical Sensing Techniques. CHINESE JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/s1872-2040(18)61108-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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20
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Abstract
Since the first attempts to mimic the human nose with artificial devices, a variety of sensors have been developed, ranging from simple inorganic and organic gas detectors to biosensing elements incorporating proteins of the biological olfactory system. In order to design a device able to mimic the human nose, two major issues still need to be addressed regarding the complexity of olfactory coding and the extreme sensitivity of the biological system. So far, only 50 of the approximately 300–400 functioning olfactory receptors have been de-orphanized, still a long way from breaking the human olfactory code. On the other hand, the exceptional sensitivity of the human nose is based on amplification mechanisms difficult to reproduce with electronic circuits, and perhaps novel approaches are required to address this issue. Here, we review the recent literature on chemical sensing both in biological systems and artificial devices, and try to establish the state-of-the-art towards the design of an electronic nose.
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21
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Pelosi P, Zhu J, Knoll W. From radioactive ligands to biosensors: binding methods with olfactory proteins. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2018; 102:8213-8227. [PMID: 30054700 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-018-9253-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Revised: 07/15/2018] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we critically review the binding protocols currently reported in the literature to measure the affinity of odorants and pheromones to soluble olfactory proteins, such as odorant-binding proteins (OBPs), chemosensory proteins (CSPs) and Niemann-Pick class C2 (NPC2) proteins. The first part contains a brief introduction on the principles of binding and a comparison of the techniques adopted or proposed so far, discussing advantages and problems of each technique, as well as their suitable application to soluble olfactory proteins. In the second part, we focus on the fluorescent binding assay, currently the most widely used approach. We analyse advantages and drawbacks, trying to identify the causes of anomalous behaviours that have been occasionally observed, and suggest how to interpret the experimental data when such events occur. In the last part, we describe the state of the art of biosensors for odorants, using soluble olfactory proteins immobilised on biochips, and discuss the possibility of using such approach as an alternative way to measure binding events and dissociation constants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Pelosi
- Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Biosensor Technologies, Konrad-Lorenzstraße, 24, 3430, Tulln, Austria.
| | - Jiao Zhu
- Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Biosensor Technologies, Konrad-Lorenzstraße, 24, 3430, Tulln, Austria
| | - Wolfgang Knoll
- Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Biosensor Technologies, Konrad-Lorenzstraße, 24, 3430, Tulln, Austria
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22
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Zhang S, Geryak R, Geldmeier J, Kim S, Tsukruk VV. Synthesis, Assembly, and Applications of Hybrid Nanostructures for Biosensing. Chem Rev 2017; 117:12942-13038. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shuaidi Zhang
- School of Materials Science
and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245, United States
| | - Ren Geryak
- School of Materials Science
and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245, United States
| | - Jeffrey Geldmeier
- School of Materials Science
and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245, United States
| | - Sunghan Kim
- School of Materials Science
and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245, United States
| | - Vladimir V. Tsukruk
- School of Materials Science
and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245, United States
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23
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Malkoc A, Probst D, Lin C, Khanwalker M, Beck C, Cook CB, La Belle JT. Enhancing Glycemic Control via Detection of Insulin Using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy. J Diabetes Sci Technol 2017; 11:930-935. [PMID: 28299957 PMCID: PMC5950988 DOI: 10.1177/1932296817699639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Currently, glycemic management for individuals with diabetes mellitus involves monitoring glucose only, which is insufficient as glucose metabolism involves other biomarkers such as insulin. Monitoring additional biomarkers alongside glucose has been proposed to improve glycemic control. In this work, the development of a rapid and label-free insulin biosensor with high sensitivity and accuracy is presented. The insulin sensor prototype also serves as a prior study for a multimarker sensing platform technology that can further improve glycemic control in the future. METHODS Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was used to identify an optimal frequency specific to insulin detection on a gold disk electrode with insulin antibody immobilized, which was accomplished by conjugating the primary amines of insulin antibody to the carboxylic bond of the self-assembling monolayer on the gold surface. After blocking with ethanolamine, the insulin physiological concentration gradient was tested. The imaginary impedance was correlated to insulin concentration and the results were compared with standard equivalent circuit analysis and correlation of charge transfer resistance to target concentration. RESULTS The optimal frequency of insulin is 810.5 Hz, which is characterized by having the highest sensitivity and sufficient specificity. The lower limit of detection was 2.26 [Formula: see text] which is comparable to a standard and better than traditional approaches. CONCLUSION An insulin biosensor prototype capable of detecting insulin in physiological range without complex data normalization was developed. This prototype will be the ground works of a multimarker platform sensor technology for future all-in-one glycemic management sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aldin Malkoc
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - David Probst
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Chi Lin
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Mukund Khanwalker
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Connor Beck
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | | | - Jeffrey T. La Belle
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
- Mayo Clinic Arizona, Scottsdale, AZ, USA
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24
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Lin C, Ryder L, Probst D, Caplan M, Spano M, LaBelle J. Feasibility in the development of a multi-marker detection platform. Biosens Bioelectron 2016; 89:743-749. [PMID: 27816597 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2016.10.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Revised: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 10/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
A feasibility study for a label-free, multi-marker single sensor using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), imaginary impedance, and a signal decoupling technique is reported. To our knowledge, this is the first reported attempt of using imaginary impedance for biomarker detection and multi-marker detection. The electrochemical responses of purified low and high density lipoproteins (LDL and HDL, respectively) were first individually characterized through the immobilization of their molecular recognition elements (MREs) onto gold disk electrodes (GDEs). The co-immobilization was performed by immobilizing the MREs of both LDL and HDL on the same GDE, which was then used to detect LDL and HDL simultaneously in mixed solution. Previous individual purified responses were then used to de-convolute the mixed response, when the two biomarkers were detected in mixed solutions. The optimal frequencies of LDL and HDL were found to be 81.38Hz and 5.49Hz, respectively, which shifted to 175.8Hz and 3.74Hz under co-immobilized conditions. After comparing the electrochemical signal in complex and imaginary impedance, imaginary impedance was found to be more suitable for multi-marker detection purposes. Since imaginary impedance is related to capacitance, electric displacement, relative permittivity, and effective capacitance were derived to elucidate the theory of optimal frequency. This work shows that EIS has the potential for multi-marker detection and can be extended to monitor other complex diseases such as diabetes mellitus for better management and diagnostic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi Lin
- Harrington Program of Biomedical Engineering, in the School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Lindsey Ryder
- Harrington Program of Biomedical Engineering, in the School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - David Probst
- Harrington Program of Biomedical Engineering, in the School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Michael Caplan
- Harrington Program of Biomedical Engineering, in the School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Mark Spano
- Harrington Program of Biomedical Engineering, in the School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Jeffrey LaBelle
- Harrington Program of Biomedical Engineering, in the School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
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