Detection of soluble ERBB2 in breast cancer cell lysates using a combined label-free/fluorescence platform based on Bloch surface waves

Photonic Crystal Surface Mode Real-Time Imaging of RAD51 DNA Repair Protein Interaction with the ssDNA Substrate

Photonic crystals (PCs) are promising tools for label-free sensing in drug discovery screening, diagnostics, and analysis of ligand-receptor interactions. Imaging of PC surface modes has emerged as a novel approach to the detection of multiple binding events at the sensor surface. PC surface modification and decoration with recognition units yield an interface providing the highly sensitive detection of cancer biomarkers, antibodies, and oligonucleotides. The RAD51 protein plays a central role in DNA repair via the homologous recombination pathway. This recombinase is essential for the genome stability and its overexpression is often correlated with aggressive cancer. RAD51 is therefore a potential target in the therapeutic strategy for cancer. Here, we report the designing of a PC-based array sensor for real-time monitoring of oligonucleotide-RAD51 recruitment by means of surface mode imaging and validation of the concept of this approach. Our data demonstrate that the designed biosensor ensures the highly sensitive multiplexed analysis of association-dissociation events and detection of the biomarker of DNA damage using a microfluidic PC array. The obtained results highlight the potential of the developed technique for testing the functionality of candidate drugs, discovering new molecular targets and drug entities. This paves the way to further adaption and bioanalytical use of the biosensor for high-content screening to identify new DNA repair inhibitor drugs targeting the RAD51 nucleoprotein filament or to discover new molecular targets.

Enhanced fluorescence detection of miRNA by means of Bloch surface wave-based biochips

We report on the use of biochips based on one-dimensional photonic crystals sustaining Bloch surface waves to specifically detect target miRNA that is characteristic of hemorrhagic stroke (miR-16-5p) at low concentration in a buffer solution. The biochips were functionalized with streptavidin and ssDNA oligonucleotides to enable miRNA detection. To discriminate the target miRNA from a non-specific control (miR-101a-3p), we made use of an optical platform developed to work both in label-free and fluorescence detection modes. We demonstrate that the limit of detection provided when operating in the fluorescence mode allows us to specifically detect the target miRNA down to 1 ng mL-1 (140 pM), which matches the recommendations for diagnostic miRNA assays, 5 ng mL-1. The low costs open the way towards the application of these disposable optical biochips based on 1DPC sustaining Bloch surface waves as a promising tool for early disease detection in a liquid biopsy format.

Liquid crystal-assisted optical biosensor for early-stage diagnosis of mammary glands using HER-2

Breast cancer (BC) is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers and the second leading cause of cancer mortality among women around the world. The purpose of this study is to present a non-labeled liquid crystal (LC) biosensor, based on the inherent feature of nematic LCs, for the evaluation of BC using the human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER-2) biomarker. The mechanism of this sensing is supported by surface modification with dimethyloctadecyl [3-(trimethoxysilyl) propyl] ammonium chloride (DMOAP) encouraging the long alkyl chains that induce a homeotropic orientation of the LC molecules at the interface. To enhance the binding efficacy of more HER-2 antibody (Ab) on LC aligning agents, a simple ultraviolet radiation-assisted method was also used to increase functional groups on the DMOAP coated slides, thereby improving binding affinity and efficiency onto HER-2 Abs. The designed biosensor makes use of the specific binding of HER-2 protein to HER-2 Ab and disruption of the orientation of LCs. This orientation change leads to a transition of the optical appearance from dark to birefringent, enabling the detection of HER-2. This novel biosensor exhibits a linear optical response to HER-2 concentration in the wide dynamic range of 10^-6-10² ng/mL, with an ultra-low detection limit of 1 fg/mL. As a proof of concept, the designed LC biosensor was successfully investigated for the quantification of HER-2 protein in patients suffering from BC. Owing to the sensitivity, selectivity, and label-free detection, this biosensor may amplify the application of LC-based biosensors for the detection of most types of cancers.

A "signal-on" photoelectrochemical sensor for human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 detection based on Y6/CdS organic-inorganic heterojunction

A "signal-on" photoelectrochemical (PEC) immunosensor was successfully constructed for determination of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) based on organic-inorganic heterojunction Y6/CdS as photoactive material. Compared with single organic semiconductor, Y6, Y6/CdS exhibited higher photoelectric conversion efficiency due to the formation of heterojunction. In the presence of HER2, sandwich immune structure was formed between HER2 aptamer and anti-HER2 antibody (Ab) by specific recognition. The polydopamine (PDA) nanoparticles were used for signal amplification to enhance photocurrent intensity as PDA can act as electron donor to eliminate holes and promote electron-hole pairs separation. The developed PEC sensor displayed a wide detection range of 5-1000 pg mL^-1 and a low detection limit of 2.2 pg mL^-1 for HER2 (S/N = 3). The sensor was successfully used for the detection of HER2 in serum with recoveries between 94.8 and 104% and relative standard deviations (RSDs) in the range of 1.2-4.3%. Furthermore, the designed immunosensor possessed good stability, selectivity, and reproducibility, which can find potential clinical applications for disease diagnosis. A "signal-on" photoelectrochemical sensor was reported for human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 detection based on Y6/CdS organic-inorganic heterojunction.

Low-Temperature Stability and Sensing Performance of Mid-Infrared Bloch Surface Waves on a One-Dimensional Photonic Crystal

The growing need for new and reliable surface sensing methods is arousing interest in the electromagnetic excitations of ultrathin films, i.e., to generate electromagnetic field distributions that resonantly interact with the most significant quasi-particles of condensed matter. In such a context, Bloch surface waves turned out to be a valid alternative to surface plasmon polaritons to implement high-sensitivity sensors in the visible spectral range. Only in the last few years, however, has their use been extended to infrared wavelengths, which represent a powerful tool for detecting and recognizing molecular species and crystalline structures. In this work, we demonstrate, by means of high-resolution reflectivity measurements, that a one-dimensional photonic crystal can sustain Bloch surface waves in the infrared spectral range from room temperature down to 10 K. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of infrared Bloch surface waves at cryogenic temperatures. Furthermore, by exploiting the enhancement of the surface state and the high brilliance of infrared synchrotron radiation, we demonstrate that the proposed BSW-based sensor has a sensitivity on the order of 2.9 cm^-1 for each nanometer-thick ice layer grown on its surface below 150 K. In conclusion, we believe that Bloch surface wave-based sensors are a valid new class of surface mode-based sensors for applications in materials science.

Recent advances in biosensing approaches for point-of-care breast cancer diagnostics: challenges and future prospects

Timely and accurate diagnosis of breast cancer is essential for efficient treatment and the best possible survival rates. Biosensors have emerged as a smart diagnostic platform for the detection of biomarkers specific to the onset, recurrence, and therapeutic drug monitoring of breast cancer. There have been exciting recent developments, including significant improvements in the validation, sensitivity, specificity, and integration of sample processing steps to develop point-of-care (POC) integrated micro-total analysis systems for clinical settings. The present review highlights various biosensing modalities (electrical, optical, piezoelectric, mass, and acoustic sensing). It provides deep insights into their design principles, signal amplification strategies, and comparative performance analysis. Finally, this review emphasizes the status of existing integrated micro-total analysis systems (μ-TAS) for personalized breast cancer therapeutics and associated challenges and outlines the approach required to realize their successful translation into clinical settings.

Spectral Characterization of Mid-Infrared Bloch Surface Waves Excited on a Truncated 1D Photonic Crystal

The many fundamental roto-vibrational resonances of chemical compounds result in strong absorption lines in the mid-infrared region (λ ∼ 2-20 μm). For this reason, mid-infrared spectroscopy plays a key role in label-free sensing, in particular, for chemical recognition, but often lacks the required sensitivity to probe small numbers of molecules. In this work, we propose a vibrational sensing scheme based on Bloch surface waves (BSWs) on 1D photonic crystals to increase the sensitivity of mid-infrared sensors. We report on the design and deposition of CaF₂/ZnS 1D photonic crystals. Moreover, we theoretically and experimentally demonstrate the possibility to sustain narrow σ-polarized BSW modes together with broader π-polarized modes in the range of 3-8 μm by means of a customized Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy setup. The multilayer stacks are deposited directly on CaF₂ prisms, reducing the number of unnecessary interfaces when exciting in the Kretschmann-Raether configuration. Finally, we compare the performance of mid-IR sensors based on surface plasmon polaritons with the BSW-based sensor. The figures of merit found for BSWs in terms of confinement of the electromagnetic field and propagation length puts them as forefrontrunners for label-free and polarization-dependent sensing devices.

Bioassay engineering: a combined label-free and fluorescence approach to optimize HER2 detection in complex biological media

We report on the combined label-free/fluorescence use of one-dimensional photonic crystals to optimize cancer biomarker detection in complex biological media. The optimization of the assay working parameters permits us to maximize the final response of the biosensor. The detection approach utilizes a sandwich assay, in which one-dimensional photonic crystals sustaining Bloch surface waves are modified with monoclonal antibodies in order to guarantee high specificity during biological recognition. The multiple outcomes generated by such optimization experiments permitted us to determine the effective capture efficiency and the repeatability of the immobilization process, which was estimated to be close to 5%. By exploiting the resolution of the fluorescence operation mode, we studied non-specific interactions in different blocking agents, different analyte diluting buffers, and diverse concentrations of the detection antibody. As a clinically relevant biomarker, we selected the trans-membrane receptor tyrosine kinase HER2. HER2 regulates a variety of cell proliferation, growth, and differentiation pathways and its over-expression occurs in approximately 20-30% of breast cancer worldwide. As a final application, we transferred all the optimized working parameters to HER2 cancer biomarker assays in a complex biological environment. The label-free and fluorescence results obtained by analyzing MCF-7 (HER2 low positive) and 32D (HER2 negative) cell lysates demonstrate that we can successfully discriminate the two lysates.

Recent Progress in Optical Sensors for Biomedical Diagnostics

In recent years, several types of optical sensors have been probed for their aptitude in healthcare biosensing, making their applications in biomedical diagnostics a rapidly evolving subject. Optical sensors show versatility amongst different receptor types and even permit the integration of different detection mechanisms. Such conjugated sensing platforms facilitate the exploitation of their neoteric synergistic characteristics for sensor fabrication. This paper covers nearly 250 research articles since 2016 representing the emerging interest in rapid, reproducible and ultrasensitive assays in clinical analysis. Therefore, we present an elaborate review of biomedical diagnostics with the help of optical sensors working on varied principles such as surface plasmon resonance, localised surface plasmon resonance, evanescent wave fluorescence, bioluminescence and several others. These sensors are capable of investigating toxins, proteins, pathogens, disease biomarkers and whole cells in varied sensing media ranging from water to buffer to more complex environments such as serum, blood or urine. Hence, the recent trends discussed in this review hold enormous potential for the widespread use of optical sensors in early-stage disease prediction and point-of-care testing devices.

Advances in HER2 testing

HER2-positive breast cancer is a particularly aggressive type of breast cancer. Indication of HER2 positivity is essential for its treatment. In addition to a few FDA-approved methods such as immunohistochemical (IHC) detection of HER2 protein expression and in situ hybridization (ISH) assessment of HER2 gene amplification, several novel methods have been developed for HER2 testing in recent years. This chapter provides an overview of HER2 testing with emphasis on those new methods.

Study of fluid dynamics at the boundary wall of a microchannel by Bloch surface waves

Understanding how a fluid flows at the boundaries when it is confined at the microscale/nanoscale is crucial for a broad range of engineering and biology applications. We propose an experimental technique based on Bloch surface waves sustained by a one-dimensional photonic crystal to evaluate the speed of the contact line, i.e., the triple junction separating three phases, in the low Reynold's number regime, and with a nanometric resolution. Here, we report on the experimental characterization of the translatory motion of the contact line that separates two water solutions with a relatively high refractive index mismatch (7.35×10^-3) and its slipping over a solid surface. The advantages are the relative simplicity and economy of the experimental configuration.

Impact of Cubic Symmetry on Optical Activity of Dielectric 8-srs Networks

Photonic crystals are engineered structures able to control the propagation and properties of light. Due to this ability, they can be fashioned into optical components for advanced light manipulation and sensing. For these applications, a particularly interesting case study is the gyroid srs-network, a three-dimensional periodic network with both cubic symmetry and chirality. In this work we present the fabrication and characterization of three-dimensional cubically symmetric 8-srs photonic crystals derived from combination of eight individual gyroid srs-networks. We numerically and experimentally investigate optical properties of these photonic crystals and study in particular, the impact of cubic symmetry on transmission and optical activity (OA). Gyroid photonic crystals fabricated in this work can lead to the development of smaller, cheaper, and more efficient optical components with functionalities that go beyond the concept of lenses.

Real-Time Study of the Adsorption and Grafting Process of Biomolecules by Means of Bloch Surface Wave Biosensors

A combined label-free and fluorescence surface optical technique was used to quantify the mass deposited in binary biomolecular coatings. These coatings were constituted by fibronectin (FN), to stimulate endothelialization, and phosphorylcholine (PRC), for its hemocompatibility, which are two properties of relevance for cardiovascular applications. One-dimensional photonic crystals sustaining a Bloch surface wave were used to characterize different FN/PRC coatings deposited by a combination of adsorption and grafting processes. In particular, the label-free results permitted to quantitatively assess the mass deposited in FN adsorbed (185 ng/cm²) and grafted (160 ng/cm²). PRC binding to grafted FN coatings was also quantified, showing a coverage as low as 10 and 12 ng/cm² for adsorbed and grafted PRC, respectively. Moreover, desorption of FN deposited by adsorption was detected and quantified upon the addition of PRC. The data obtained by the surface optical technique were complemented by water contact angle and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analyses. The results were in accordance with those obtained previously by qualitative and semiquantitative techniques (XPS, time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry) on several substrates (PTFE and stainless steel), confirming that grafted FN coatings show higher stability than those obtained by FN adsorption.

Bloch surface wave enhanced biosensor for the direct detection of Angiopoietin-2 tumor biomarker in human plasma

Quantitative detection of angiogenic biomarkers provides a powerful tool to diagnose cancers in early stages and to follow its progression during therapy. Conventional tests require trained personnel, dedicated laboratory equipment and are generally time-consuming. Herein, we propose our developed biosensing platform as a useful tool for a rapid determination of Angiopoietin-2 biomarker directly from patient plasma within 30 minutes, without any sample preparation or dilution. Bloch surface waves supported by one dimensional photonic crystal are exploited to enhance and redirect the fluorescence arising from a sandwich immunoassay that involves Angiopoietin-2. The sensing units consist of disposable and low-cost plastic biochips coated with the photonic crystal. The biosensing platform is demonstrated to detect Angiopoietin-2 in plasma samples at the clinically relevant concentration of 6 ng/mL, with an estimated limit of detection of approximately 1 ng/mL. This is the first Bloch surface wave based assay capable of detecting relevant concentrations of an angiogenic factor in plasma samples. The results obtained by the developed biosensing platform are in close agreement with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, demonstrating a good accuracy, and their repeatability showed acceptable relative variations.

Label-Free Biochips for Accurate Detection of Prostate Cancer in the Clinic: Dual Biomarkers and Circulating Tumor Cells

Purpose: Early diagnosis of prostate cancer (PCa) is essential for the prevention of metastasis and for early treatment; therefore, we aimed to develop a simple, accurate, and multi-analyte assay system for early PCa diagnosis in this study. Experimental design: We fabricated three kinds of biochips then integrated into microfluidic device for simultaneous detection of vascularendothelial growth factor (VEGF), prostate-specific antigen (PSA), and PCa circulating tumor cells (CTC) in human serum for accurate diagnosis of PCa. Then the integrated device can be put in the ELISA reader for signal analysis after sample incubation, no necessary of further fluorescence staining or microscopy counting. Result: The integrated device has wide liner detection ranges (0.05-25 ng/mL for both PSA and VEGF, and 5-300 cells/mL for PCa CTC), as well as high levels of sensitivity and selectivity, and demonstrated a high correlation with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for sample detection in patients. Also, the presented biochips could maintain their stability when stored at 37°C for 49 days without significant differences in the red-shift (<5%). Conclusions: We have successfully developed a multi-analyte sensing system for rapid and easy detection of PSA, VEGF, and PC3 cells in PCa samples using label-free glass-based chips. This method presents the advantages of a broad working range, high specificity, label-free, high-speed, stability, and low cost detection method for point-of-care testing of PCa.

Bloch Surface Waves Biosensors for High Sensitivity Detection of Soluble ERBB2 in a Complex Biological Environment

We report on the use of one-dimensional photonic crystals to detect clinically relevant concentrations of the cancer biomarker ERBB2 in cell lysates. Overexpression of the ERBB2 protein is associated with aggressive breast cancer subtypes. To detect soluble ERBB2, we developed an optical set-up which operates in both label-free and fluorescence modes. The detection approach makes use of a sandwich assay, in which the one-dimensional photonic crystals sustaining Bloch surface waves are modified with monoclonal antibodies, in order to guarantee high specificity during the biological recognition. We present the results of exemplary protein G based label-free assays in complex biological matrices, reaching an estimated limit of detection of 0.5 ng/mL. On-chip and chip-to-chip variability of the results is addressed too, providing repeatability rates. Moreover, results on fluorescence operation demonstrate the capability to perform high sensitive cancer biomarker assays reaching a resolution of 0.6 ng/mL, without protein G assistance. The resolution obtained in both modes meets international guidelines and recommendations (15 ng/mL) for ERBB2 quantification assays, providing an alternative tool to phenotype and diagnose molecular cancer subtypes.

Design rules for combined label-free and fluorescence Bloch surface wave biosensors

We report on the fabrication and physical characterization of optical biosensors implementing simultaneous label-free and fluorescence detection and taking advantage of the excitation of Bloch surface waves at a photonic crystal's truncation interface. Two types of purposely designed one-dimensional photonic crystals on molded organic substrates with micro-optics were fabricated. These crystals feature either high or low finesse of the Bloch surface wave resonances and were tested on the same optical readout system. The experimental results show that designing biochips with a large resonance quality factor does not necessarily lead in the real case to an improvement of the biosensor performance. The conditions for optimal biochip design and operation of the complete bio-sensing platform are established.