Novel 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid analogues as potent and selective inhibitors of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases

A review of typical biological activities of glycyrrhetinic acid and its derivatives

Glycyrrhetinic acid, a triterpenoid compound primarily sourced from licorice root, exhibits noteworthy biological attributes, including anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, antibacterial, antiviral, and antioxidant effects. Despite these commendable effects, its further advancement and application, especially in clinical use, have been hindered by its limited druggability, including challenges such as low solubility and bioavailability. To enhance its biological activity and pharmaceutical efficacy, numerous research studies focus on the structural modification, associated biological activity data, and underlying mechanisms of glycyrrhetinic acid and its derivatives. This review endeavors to systematically compile and organize glycyrrhetinic acid derivatives that have demonstrated outstanding biological activities over the preceding decade, delineating their molecular structures, biological effects, underlying mechanisms, and future prospects for assisting researchers in finding and designing novel glycyrrhetinic acid derivatives, foster the exploration of structure-activity relationships, and aid in the screening of potential candidate compounds.

Biosynthesis of Chryseno[2,1,c]oxepin-12-Carboxylic Acid from Glycyrrhizic Acid in Aspergillus terreus TMZ05-2, and Analysis of Its Anti-inflammatory Activity

Glycyrrhizic acid, glycyrrhetinic acid, and their oxo, ester, lactone, and other derivatives, are known for their anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and hypoglycemic pharmacological activities. In this study, chryseno[2,1-c]oxepin-12-carboxylic acid (MG) was first biosynthesized from glycyrrhizic acid through sequential hydrolysis, oxidation, and esterification using Aspergillus terreus TMZ05-2, providing a novel in vitro biosynthetic pathway for glycyrrhizic acid derivatives. Assessing the influence of fermentation conditions and variation of strains during culture under stress-induction strategies enhanced the final molar yield to 88.3% (5 g/L glycyrrhizic acid). CCK8 assays showed no cytotoxicity and good cell proliferation, and anti-inflammatory experiments demonstrated strong inhibition of NO release (36.3%, low-dose MG vs. model), transcriptional downregulation of classical effective cellular factors tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α; 72.2%, low-dose MG vs. model), interleukin-6 (IL-6; 58.3%, low-dose MG vs. model) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β; 76.4%, low-dose MG vs. model), and decreased abundance of P-IKK-α, P-IKB-α, and P-P65 proteins, thereby alleviating inflammatory responses through the NF-κB pathway in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. The findings provide a reference for the biosynthesis of lactone compounds from medicinal plants.

A Mini-Review on Structure-Activity Relationships of Glycyrrhetinic Acid Derivatives with Diverse Bioactivities

Pentacyclic triterpenoids, consisting of six isoprene units, are a kind of natural active substance. At present, numerous pentacyclic triterpene have been observed and classified into four subgroups of oleanane, ursane, lupane, and xylene on the basis of the carbon skeleton. Among them, oleanane is the most popular due to its rich backbone and diverse bioactivities. 18β-Glycyrrhetinic acid (GA), an oleanane-type pentacyclic triterpene isolated from licorice roots, possesses diverse bioactivities including antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antimicrobial, enzyme inhibitor, hepatoprotective and so on. It has received more attention in medicinal chemistry due to the advantages of easy-to-access and rich bioactivity. Thus, numerous novel lead compounds were synthesized using GA as a scaffold. Herein, we summarize the structure-activity relationship and synthetic methodologies of GA derivatives from 2010 to 2020 as well as the most active GA derivatives. Finally, we anticipate that this review can benefit future research on structural modifications of GA to enhance bioactivity and provide an example for developing pentacyclic triterpene-based novel drugs.

Targeting mitochondria: Esters of rhodamine B with triterpenoids are mitocanic triggers of apoptosis

Triterpenoic acids, ursolic acid (1), oleanolic acid (2), glycyrrhetinic acid (3) and betulinic acid (4) were converted into their corresponding methyl 5-8 and benzyl esters 9-12 or benzyl amides 21-24. These derivatives served as starting materials for the synthesis of pink colored rhodamine B derivatives 25-36 which were screened for cytotoxicity in colorimetric SRB assays. All of the compounds were cytotoxic for a variety of human tumor cell lines. The activity of the benzyl ester derivatives 29-32 was lower than the cytotoxicity of the methyl esters 25-28. The benzyl amides 33-36 were the most cytotoxic compounds of this series. The most potential compound was a glycyrrhetinic acid rhodamine B benzyl amide 35. This compound showed activity against the different cancer cell lines in a two-digit to low three-digit nano-molar range. Staining experiments combined with fluorescence microscopy showed that this compound triggered apoptosis in A2780 ovarian carcinoma cells and acted as a mitocan.

Glycyrrhiza glabra

Liquorice foliage

Pathogenesis of drug-resistant hypertension

More is known about the epidemiology of drug-resistant hypertension than particular pathogenic factors and pathways. Several recurring themes, however, seem evident on using insight from epidemiology and general knowledge of the pathophysiology of hypertension. Specifically, 4 main pathways converge on drug resistance including sodium handling, sympathetic nervous system activation, endothelial dysfunction, and arterial stiffness. These factors, and the various pathways and elements contributing to them, are reviewed. In addition to describing how these factors exert their individual influences on resistant hypertension, several examples of how interactions between these factors, particularly in the case of chronic kidney disease, are included. At the conclusion of this review some thoughts are offered on additional mechanisms and areas for potential research.

First preparation of a triterpenoid-based supramolecular hydrogel in physiological phosphate buffered saline

A glycyrrhetinic acid-based supramolecular hydrogel was attained in physiological phosphate buffered saline for the first time.

Anti-inflammatory triterpenoids from the stems of Microtropis fokienensis

Three new ursane- and four new oleanane- type triterpenoids 1-7 were isolated, along with six known compounds 8-13, from the methanolic extract of Microtropis fokienensis. All structures were elucidated by mass and NMR spectroscopic methods. The isolates 4-10 and known compounds 14-17 that were previously isolated from this material were evaluated for anti-inflammatory activity based on effects against superoxide anion generation and elastase release by neutrophils in response to fMLP/CB. 11α,30-Dihydroxy-2,3-seco-olean-12-en-2,3-dioic anhydride (7) was the first triterpene anhydride from the genus of Microtropis to have the ring A expanded to a seven-membered ring; it showed significant anti-inflammatory activity against superoxide anion generation and elastase release. Unexpectedly, 30-hydroxy-2,3-seco-lup-20(29)-ene-2,3-dioic acid (17) showed the best effect against superoxide anion generation and elastase release with IC50 values of 0.06±0.01 and 1.03±0.35 µg/mL, respectively. Compound 17 had a dioic acid function, and compound 7 had an anhydride function modification in ring A; both showed promising activity in the target assays.

Charge-transfer interaction mediated organogels from 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid appended pyrene

We describe herein the two-component charge-transfer (CT) interaction induced organogel formation with 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid appended pyrene (GA-pyrene, 3) as the donor, and 2,4,7-trinitrofluorenone (TNF, 4) as the acceptor. The use of TNF (4) as a versatile electron acceptor in the formation of CT gels is demonstrated through the formation of gels in a variety of solvents. Thermal stability, stoichiometry, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), optical micrographs, and circular dichroism (CD) are performed on these CT gels to investigate their thermal and assembly properties. UV–vis, fluorescence, mass spectrometric as well as variable-temperature ¹H NMR experiments on these gels suggest that the CT interaction is one of the major driving forces for the formation of these organogels.

Induction of 11β-HSD 1 and activation of distinct mineralocorticoid receptor- and glucocorticoid receptor-dependent gene networks in decidualizing human endometrial stromal cells

The actions of glucocorticoids at the feto-maternal interface are not well understood. Here, we show that decidualization of human endometrial stromal cells (HESCs) in response to progesterone and cAMP signaling is associated with a strong induction of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11βHSD1) expression and enzyme activity. Decidualization also triggered a gradual decrease in glucocorticoid receptor (GR) expression and reciprocal increase in mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) levels. Gene expression profiling of differentiating HESCs after small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated knockdown of either GR or MR identified 239 and 167 significantly regulated genes, respectively. Interestingly, GR-repressed genes were enriched for Krüppel-associated box domain containing zinc-finger proteins, transcriptional repressors involved in heterochromatin formation. In agreement, GR knockdown was sufficient to enhance trimethylated H3K9 levels in decidualizing cells. Conversely, we identified several MR-dependent genes implicated in lipid droplet biogenesis and retinoid metabolism. For example, the induction in differentiating HESCs of DHRS3, encoding a highly conserved enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation/reduction of retinoids and steroids, was enhanced by aldosterone, attenuated in response to MR knockdown, and abolished upon treatment with the MR antagonist RU26752. Furthermore, we demonstrate that decidualization is associated with dynamic changes in the abundance and distribution of cytoplasmic lipid droplets, the formation of which was blocked by RU26752. In summary, progesterone drives local cortisol biosynthesis by decidual cells through induction of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11βHSD1), leading to transcriptional regulation of distinct GR and MR gene networks involved in epigenetic programming and lipid and retinoid metabolism, respectively.

11β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1: relevance of its modulation in the pathophysiology of obesity, the metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus

Recent evidence strongly argues for a pathogenic role of glucocorticoids and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-HSD1) in obesity and the metabolic syndrome, a cluster of risk factors for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) that includes insulin resistance (IR), dyslipidaemia, hypertension and visceral obesity. This has been partially prompted not only by the striking clinical resemblances between the metabolic syndrome and Cushing's syndrome (a state characterized by hypercortisolism that associates with metabolic syndrome components) but also from monogenic rodent models for the metabolic syndrome (e.g. the leptin-deficient ob/ob mouse or the leptin-resistant Zucker rat) that display overall increased secretion of glucocorticoids. However, systemic circulating glucocorticoids are not elevated in obese patients and/or patients with metabolic syndrome. The study of the role of 11β-HSD system shed light on this conundrum, showing that local glucocorticoids are finely regulated in a tissue-specific manner at the pre-receptor level. The system comprises two microsomal enzymes that either activate cortisone to cortisol (11β-HSD1) or inactivate cortisol to cortisone (11β-HSD2). Transgenic rodent models, knockout (KO) for HSD11B1 or with HSD11B1 or HSD11B2 overexpression, specifically targeted to the liver or adipose tissue, have been developed and helped unravel the currently undisputable role of the enzymes in metabolic syndrome pathophysiology, in each of its isolated components and in their prevention. In the transgenic HSD11B1 overexpressing models, different features of the metabolic syndrome and obesity are replicated. HSD11B1 gene deficiency or HSD11B2 gene overexpression associates with improvements in the metabolic profile. In face of these demonstrations, research efforts are now being turned both into the inhibition of 11β-HSD1 as a possible pharmacological target and into the role of dietary habits on the establishment or the prevention of the metabolic syndrome, obesity and T2DM through 11β-HSD1 modulation. We intend to review and discuss 11β-HSD1 and obesity, the metabolic syndrome and T2DM and to highlight the potential of its inhibition for therapeutic or prophylactic approaches in those metabolic diseases.

(3β,18β,20β)-N-Eth-oxy-carbonyl-methyl-3-nitrato-11-oxoolean-12-ene-29-carboxamide methanol monosolvate

The title compound, C(34)H(52)N(2)O(7)·CH(4)O, is the methanol solvate of a difunctionalized derivative of the therapeutic agent 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, a penta-cyclic triterpene. The five six-membered rings of the glycyrrhetinic acid moiety show normal geometries, with four rings in chair conformations and the unsaturated ring in a half-chair conformation. This moiety is substituted by a nitrate ester group and an O-ethyl-glycine group. In the crystal, the nonsolvent mol-ecules are packed parallel to (010) in a herringbone fashion with the nitrato, ethyl-glycine and methanol-O atom being proximate. The methanol solvent mol-ecule is anchored via a donated O-H⋯O(ac-yl) and an accepted N-H⋯O hydrogen bond, giving rise to infinite zigzag chains of hydrogen bonds parallel to [100]. Two weak intermolecular C-H⋯O interactions to the methanol and to an acyl oxygen establish links along [100] and [010], respectively.

Propargylaminyl 3α-hydroxy-11-oxo-18β-olean-12-en-29-oate

The title compound, C₃₃H₄₉NO₃, is the propargyl­amide of 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, a penta­cyclic triterpenoid of inter­est as a therapeutic agent. The five six-membered rings of the glycyrrhetinic acid moiety show normal geometries, with four rings in chair conformations and the unsaturated ring C in a half-chair conformation. In the crystal, the terminal N-propargylcarboxamide group has remarkable structural effects on weak hydrogen-bond-like inter­actions. Particularly noteworthy are an inter­molecular O—H⋯π inter­action accepted side-on by the terminal alkyne group [O⋯C = 3.097 (2) and 3.356 (2) Å] and a short inter­molecular C—H⋯O inter­action [C⋯O = 3.115 (2) Å] donated by the alkyne C—H group. An N—H⋯O [N⋯O = 3.251 (2) Å] and a C_alkyl—H⋯O [C⋯O = 3.254 (2) Å] interaction complement the crystal structure.

Characterization of activity and binding mode of glycyrrhetinic acid derivatives inhibiting 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2

Modulation of intracellular glucocorticoid availability is considered as a promising strategy to treat glucocorticoid-dependent diseases. 18β-Glycyrrhetinic acid (GA), the biologically active triterpenoid metabolite of glycyrrhizin, which is contained in the roots and rhizomes of licorice (Glycyrrhiza spp.), represents a well-known but non-selective inhibitor of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (11β-HSDs). However, to assess the physiological functions of the respective enzymes and for potential therapeutic applications selective inhibitors are needed. In the present study, we applied bioassays and 3D-structure modeling to characterize nine 11β-HSD1 and fifteen 11β-HSD2 inhibiting GA derivatives. Comparison of the GA derivatives in assays using cell lysates revealed that modifications at the 3-hydroxyl and/or the carboxyl led to highly selective and potent 11β-HSD2 inhibitors. The data generated significantly extends our knowledge on structure-activity relationship of GA derivatives as 11β-HSD inhibitors. Using recombinant enzymes we found also potent inhibition of mouse 11β-HSD2, despite significant species-specific differences. The selected GA derivatives potently inhibited 11β-HSD2 in intact SW-620 colon cancer cells, although the rank order of inhibitory potential differed from that obtained in cell lysates. The biological activity of compounds was further demonstrated in glucocorticoid receptor (GR) transactivation assays in cells coexpressing GR and 11β-HSD1 or 11β-HSD2. 3D-structure modeling provides an explanation for the differences in the selectivity and activity of the GA derivatives investigated. The most potent and selective 11β-HSD2 inhibitors should prove useful as mechanistic tools for further anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer in vitro and in vivo studies. Article from the Special issue on Targeted Inhibitors.

1,2,5-Oxadiazolo[3,4-b]glycyrrhetinic acid

THE TITLE COMPOUND [SYSTEMATIC NAME: 11-oxo-2,3-(oxy-dinitrilo)olean-12-en-29-oic acid], C(30)H(42)N(2)O(4), contains a linear array of five six-membered rings and a five-membered heterocyclic ring. The C ring, containing an α,β-unsaturated ketone, has a slightly distorted half-chair conformation, as does the A ring, with N-C-C angles 125.3 (5), 111.2 (4), 124.9 (5) and 109.2 (5)°, while the other three six-membered rings adopt chair conformations. The enanti-omer has been assigned by reference to unchanging chiral centres in the synthetic procedure. An intramolecular C-H⋯O interaction is present. In the crystal structure, inter-molecular O-H⋯O hydrogen bonds link the mol-ecules.

Glycyrrhizin and licorice significantly affect the pharmacokinetics of methotrexate in rats

Glycyrrhizin (GZ) and licorice (root of Glycyrrhiza uralensis) are worldwide food additives and important oriental phytomedicines. This study investigated the biological fate of GZ by orally giving GZ and licorice decoction (LD) to rats. The serum concentrations of GZ and glycyrrhetic acid (GA) were determined by high performance liquid chromatography. The results showed that GZ was not detected and GA was present in serum until 3 days postdosing of GZ and LD. To evaluate the effects of GZ and licorice on the pharmacokinetics of methotrexate (MTX), an important immunosuppressant with a narrow therapeutic window, rats were orally given MTX with and without GZ and LD in different dosage regimens. The serum MTX concentration was determined by fluorescence polarization immunoassay. The results revealed that the AUC and MRT of MTX were significantly increased by GZ and LD. In conclusion, the concurrent use of GZ or licorice with MTX should be with caution.

Selective inhibition of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1 by 18alpha-glycyrrhetinic acid but not 18beta-glycyrrhetinic acid

Elevated cortisol concentrations have been associated with metabolic diseases such as diabetes type 2 and obesity. 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11beta-HSD) type 1, catalyzing the conversion of inactive 11-ketoglucocorticoids into their active 11beta-hydroxy forms, plays an important role in the regulation of cortisol levels within specific tissues. The selective inhibition of 11beta-HSD1 is currently considered as promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of metabolic diseases. In recent years, natural compound-derived drug design has gained considerable interest. 18beta-glycyrrhetinic acid (GA), a metabolite of the natural product glycyrrhizin, is not selective and inhibits both 11beta-HSD1 and 11beta-HSD2. Here, we compare the biological activity of 18beta-GA and its diastereomer 18alpha-GA against the two enzymes in lysates of transfected HEK-293 cells and show that 18alpha-GA selectively inhibits 11beta-HSD1 but not 11beta-HSD2. This is in contrast to 18beta-GA, which preferentially inhibits 11beta-HSD2. Using a pharmacophore model based on the crystal structure of the GA-derivative carbenoxolone in complex with human 11beta-HSD1, we provide an explanation for the differences in the activities of 18alpha-GA and 18beta-GA. This model will be used to design novel selective derivatives of GA.

Novel non-steroidal inhibitors of human 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1

11beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11beta-HSD1) regulates glucocorticoid action at the pre-receptor stage by converting cortisone to cortisol. 11beta-HSD1 is selectively expressed in many tissues including the liver and adipose tissue where metabolic events are important. Metabolic syndrome relates to a number of metabolic abnormalities and currently has a prevalence of >20% in adult Americans. 11beta-HSD1 inhibitors are being investigated by many major pharmaceutical companies for type 2 diabetes and other abnormalities associated with metabolic syndrome. In this area of intense interest a number of structural types of 11beta-HSD1 inhibitor have been identified. It is important to have an array of structural types as the physicochemical properties of the compounds will determine tissue distribution, HPA effects, and ultimately clinical utility. Here we report the discovery and synthesis of three structurally different series of novel 11beta-HSD1 inhibitors that inhibit human 11beta-HSD1 in the low micromolar range. Docking studies with 1-3 into the crystal structure of human 11beta-HSD1 reveal how the molecules may interact with the enzyme and cofactor and give further scope for structure based drug design in the optimisation of these series.

Inhibition of human and rat 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 by 18beta-glycyrrhetinic acid derivatives

11beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11beta-HSD1) plays an important role in regulating the cortisol availability to bind to corticosteroid receptors within specific tissue. Recent advances in understanding the molecular mechanisms of metabolic syndrome indicate that elevation of cortisol levels within specific tissues through the action of 11beta-HSD1 could contribute to the pathogenesis of this disease. Therefore, selective inhibitors of 11beta-HSD1 have been investigated as potential treatments for metabolic diseases, such as diabetes mellitus type 2 or obesity. Here we report the discovery and synthesis of some 18beta-glycyrrhetinic acid (18beta-GA) derivatives (2-5) and their inhibitory activities against rat hepatic11beta-HSD1 and rat renal 11beta-HSD2. Once the selectivity over the rat type 2 enzyme was established, these compounds' ability to inhibit human 11beta-HSD1 was also evaluated using both radioimmunoassay (RIA) and homogeneous time resolved fluorescence (HTRF) methods. The 11-modified 18beta-GA derivatives 2 and 3 with apparent selectivity for rat 11beta-HSD1 showed a high percentage inhibition for human microsomal 11beta-HSD1 at 10 microM and exhibited IC50 values of 400 and 1100 nM, respectively. The side chain modified 18beta-GA derivatives 4 and 5, although showing selectivity for rat 11beta-HSD1 inhibited human microsomal 11beta-HSD1 with IC50 values in the low micromolar range.