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Teixeira De Oliveira J, Brito Tecchio K, Silva Lopes M, Nunes Andrade S, Iara Maciel De Azambuja Ribeiro R, Varotti FDP, Barbosa De Oliveira R, Henrique Ribeiro Viana G, J Da Silva Vieira Dos Santos V, Vieira Dos Santos F. In vitro evaluation of the selective cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of three synthetic ortho-nitrobenzyl derivatives in human cancer cell lines, with and without metabolic activation. Drug Chem Toxicol 2024; 47:404-415. [PMID: 38949608 DOI: 10.1080/01480545.2023.2184478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/18/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023]
Abstract
Although the presence of nitro groups in chemicals can be recognized as structural alerts for mutagenicity and carcinogenicity, nitroaromatic compounds have attracted considerable interest as a class of agents that can serve as source of potential new anticancer agents. In the present study, the in vitro cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and mutagenicity of three synthetic ortho-nitrobenzyl derivatives (named ON-1, ON-2 and ON-3) were evaluated by employing human breast and ovarian cancer cell lines. A series of biological assays was carried out with and without metabolic activation. Complementarily, computational predictions of the pharmacokinetic properties and druglikeness of the compounds were performed in the Swiss ADME platform. The MTT assay showed that the compounds selectively affected selectively the cell viability of cancer cells in comparison with a nontumoral cell line. Additionally, the metabolic activation enhanced cytotoxicity, and the compounds affected cell survival, as demonstrated by the clonogenic assay. The comet assay, the cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay, and the immunofluorescence of the γ-H2AX foci formation assay have that the compounds caused chromosomal damage to the cancer cells, with and without metabolic activation. The results obtained in the present study showed that the compounds assessed were genotoxic and mutagenic, inducing double-strand breaks in the DNA structure. The high selectivity indices observed for the compounds ON-2 and ON-3, especially after metabolic activation with the S9 fraction, must be highlighted. These experimental biological results, as well as the theoretical properties predicted for the compounds have shown that they are promising anticancer candidates to be exploited in additional studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Júlia Teixeira De Oliveira
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Mutagênese (LaBCeM), Universidade Federal de São João del Rei (UFSJ), Divinópolis, Brazil
- Núcleo de Pesquisa em Química Biológica (NQBio), Universidade Federal de São João del Rei (UFSJ), Divinópolis, Brazil
| | - Kimberly Brito Tecchio
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Mutagênese (LaBCeM), Universidade Federal de São João del Rei (UFSJ), Divinópolis, Brazil
- Núcleo de Pesquisa em Química Biológica (NQBio), Universidade Federal de São João del Rei (UFSJ), Divinópolis, Brazil
| | - Marcela Silva Lopes
- Departamento de Produtos Farmacêuticos, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Silmara Nunes Andrade
- Núcleo de Pesquisa em Química Biológica (NQBio), Universidade Federal de São João del Rei (UFSJ), Divinópolis, Brazil
| | | | - Fernando De Pilla Varotti
- Núcleo de Pesquisa em Química Biológica (NQBio), Universidade Federal de São João del Rei (UFSJ), Divinópolis, Brazil
| | - Renata Barbosa De Oliveira
- Departamento de Produtos Farmacêuticos, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | | | | | - Fabio Vieira Dos Santos
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Mutagênese (LaBCeM), Universidade Federal de São João del Rei (UFSJ), Divinópolis, Brazil
- Núcleo de Pesquisa em Química Biológica (NQBio), Universidade Federal de São João del Rei (UFSJ), Divinópolis, Brazil
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2
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Seetsi A, N'da DD, Molefe-Nyembe N, Suganuma K, Ramatla T, Thekisoe O. In vitro anti-trypanosomal activity of synthetic nitrofurantoin-triazole hybrids against Trypanosoma species causing human African trypanosomosis. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2024; 38:72-83. [PMID: 37479675 DOI: 10.1111/fcp.12940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023]
Abstract
Human African trypanosomosis (HAT) which is also known as sleeping sickness is caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense that is endemic in western and central Africa and T. b. rhodesiense that is endemic in eastern and southern Africa. Drugs used for treatment against HAT first stage have limited effectiveness, and the second stage drugs have been reported to be toxic, expensive, and have time-consuming administration, and parasitic resistance has developed against these drugs. The aim of this study was to evaluate the anti-trypanosomal activity of nitrofurantoin-triazole hybrids against T. b. gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense parasites in vitro. This study screened 19 synthesized nitrofurantoin-triazole (NFT) hybrids on two strains of human trypanosomes, and cytotoxicity was evaluated on Madin-Darby bovine kidney (MDBK) cells. The findings in this study showed that an increase in the chain length and the number of carbon atoms in some n-alkyl hybrids influenced the increase in anti-trypanosomal activity against T. b. gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense. The short-chain n-alkyl hybrids showed decreased activity compared to the long-chain n-alkyl hybrids, with increased activity against both T. b. gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense. Incorporation of additional electron-donating substituents in some NFT hybrids showed increased anti-trypanosomal activity than to electron-withdrawing substituents in NFT hybrids. All 19 NFT hybrids tested displayed better anti-trypanosomal activity against T. b. gambiense than T. b. rhodesiense. The NFT hybrid no. 16 was among the best performing hybrids against both T. b. gambiense (0.08 ± 0.04 μM) and T. b.rhodesiense (0.11 ± 0.06 μM), and its activity might be influenced by the introduction of fluorine in the para-position on the benzyl ring. Remarkably, the NFT hybrids in this study displayed weak to moderate cytotoxicity on MDBK cells. All of the NFT hybrids in this study had selectivity index values ranging from 18 to greater than 915, meaning that they were up to 10-100 times fold selective in their anti-trypanosomal activity. The synthesized NFT hybrids showed strong selectivity >10 to T. b. gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense, which indicates that they qualify from the initial selection criteria for potential hit drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Seetsi
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - David D N'da
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences (PHARMACEN), North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Nthatisi Molefe-Nyembe
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of the Free State, Phuthaditjhaba, South Africa
| | - Keisuke Suganuma
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Surra, National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Tsepo Ramatla
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Oriel Thekisoe
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
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3
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Martinez MZ, Olmo F, Taylor MC, Caudron F, Wilkinson SR. Dissecting the interstrand crosslink DNA repair system of Trypanosoma cruzi. DNA Repair (Amst) 2023; 125:103485. [PMID: 36989950 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2023.103485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
DNA interstrand crosslinks (ICLs) are toxic lesions that can block essential biological processes. Here we show Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease, is susceptible to ICL-inducing compounds including mechlorethamine and novel nitroreductase-activated prodrugs that have potential in treating this infection. To resolve such lesions, cells co-opt enzymes from "classical" DNA repair pathways that alongside dedicated factors operate in replication-dependent and -independent mechanisms. To assess ICL repair in T. cruzi, orthologues of SNM1, MRE11 and CSB were identified and their function assessed. The T. cruzi enzymes could complement the mechlorethamine susceptibility phenotype displayed by corresponding yeast and/or T. brucei null confirming their role as ICL repair factors while GFP-tagged TcSNM1, TcMRE11 and TcCSB were shown to localise to the nuclei of insect and/or intracellular form parasites. Gene disruption demonstrated that while each activity was non-essential for T. cruzi viability, nulls displayed a growth defect in at least one life cycle stage with TcMRE11-deficient trypomastigotes also compromised in mammalian cell infectivity. Phenotyping revealed all nulls were more susceptible to mechlorethamine than controls, a trait complemented by re-expression of the deleted gene. To assess interplay, the gene disruption approach was extended to generate T. cruzi deficient in TcSNM1/TcMRE11 or in TcSNM1/TcCSB. Analysis demonstrated these activities functioned across two ICL repair pathways with TcSNM1 and TcMRE11 postulated to operate in a replication-dependent system while TcCSB helps resolve transcription-blocking lesions. By unravelling how T. cruzi repairs ICL damage, specific inhibitors targeting repair components could be developed and used to increase the potency of trypanocidal ICL-inducing compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Zavala Martinez
- School of Biological & Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK
| | - Francisco Olmo
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Martin C Taylor
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Fabrice Caudron
- School of Biological & Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK
| | - Shane R Wilkinson
- School of Biological & Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK.
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4
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Kasozi KI, MacLeod ET, Ntulume I, Welburn SC. An Update on African Trypanocide Pharmaceutics and Resistance. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:828111. [PMID: 35356785 PMCID: PMC8959112 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.828111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
African trypanosomiasis is associated with Trypanosoma evansi, T. vivax, T. congolense, and T. brucei pathogens in African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) while T. b gambiense and T. b rhodesiense are responsible for chronic and acute human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), respectively. Suramin sodium suppresses ATP generation during the glycolytic pathway and is ineffective against T. vivax and T. congolense infections. Resistance to suramin is associated with pathogen altered transport proteins. Melarsoprol binds irreversibly with pyruvate kinase protein sulfhydryl groups and neutralizes enzymes which interrupts the trypanosome ATP generation. Melarsoprol resistance is associated with the adenine-adenosine transporter, P2, due to point mutations within this transporter. Eflornithine is used in combination with nifurtimox. Resistance to eflornithine is caused by the deletion or mutation of TbAAT6 gene which encodes the transmembrane amino acid transporter that delivers eflornithine into the cell, thus loss of transporter protein results in eflornithine resistance. Nifurtimox alone is regarded as a poor trypanocide, however, it is effective in melarsoprol-resistant gHAT patients. Resistance is associated with loss of a single copy of the genes encoding for nitroreductase enzymes. Fexinidazole is recommended for first-stage and non-severe second-stage illnesses in gHAT and resistance is associated with trypanosome bacterial nitroreductases which reduce fexinidazole. In AAT, quinapyramine sulfate interferes with DNA synthesis and suppression of cytoplasmic ribosomal activity in the mitochondria. Quinapyramine sulfate resistance is due to variations in the potential of the parasite's mitochondrial membrane. Pentamidines create cross-links between two adenines at 4–5 pairs apart in adenine-thymine-rich portions of Trypanosoma DNA. It also suppresses type II topoisomerase in the mitochondria of Trypanosoma parasites. Pentamidine resistance is due to loss of mitochondria transport proteins P2 and HAPT1. Diamidines are most effective against Trypanosome brucei group and act via the P2/TbAT1 transporters. Diminazene aceturate resistance is due to mutations that alter the activity of P2, TeDR40 (T. b. evansi). Isometamidium chloride is primarily employed in the early stages of trypanosomiasis and resistance is associated with diminazene resistance. Phenanthridine (homidium bromide, also known as ethidium bromide) acts by a breakdown of the kinetoplast network and homidium resistance is comparable to isometamidium. In humans, the development of resistance and adverse side effects against monotherapies has led to the adoption of nifurtimox-eflornithine combination therapy. Current efforts to develop new prodrug combinations of nifurtimox and eflornithine and nitroimidazole fexinidazole as well as benzoxaborole SCYX-7158 (AN5568) for HAT are in progress while little comparable progress has been done for the development of novel therapies to address trypanocide resistance in AAT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keneth Iceland Kasozi
- Infection Medicine, Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- School of Medicine, Kabale University, Kabale, Uganda
- *Correspondence: Keneth Iceland Kasozi ;
| | - Ewan Thomas MacLeod
- Infection Medicine, Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Ibrahim Ntulume
- School of Biosecurity Biotechnical and Laboratory Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Susan Christina Welburn
- Infection Medicine, Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Zhejiang University-University of Edinburgh Joint Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Susan Christina Welburn
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5
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Comparison of chemical and biological properties of organometallic complexes containing 4- and 5-nitrothienyl groups. Polyhedron 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.poly.2020.114872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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6
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Synthesis and evaluation of new 4-peptidamido-2-fluorobenzyl phosphoramide mustard conjugates as prodrugs activated by prostate-specific antigen. Med Chem Res 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00044-020-02572-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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7
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Dattani A, Wilkinson SR. Deciphering the interstrand crosslink DNA repair network expressed by Trypanosoma brucei. DNA Repair (Amst) 2019; 78:154-166. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2019.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Revised: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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8
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Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of a novel platinum(II) complex possessing bioreductive groups for cancer therapy. CHINESE CHEM LETT 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2018.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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9
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Gholivand K, Azadbakht M, Maghsoud Y, Hosseini M, Kazak C. Synthesis, characterization, crystal structures, Hirshfeld surface analysis and theoretical calculations of some new bisphosphoramidate derivatives and novel binuclear triorganotin(IV) complexes with diphosphoryl ligand. J Organomet Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jorganchem.2018.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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10
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Therapeutic journery of nitrogen mustard as alkylating anticancer agents: Historic to future perspectives. Eur J Med Chem 2018; 151:401-433. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 03/30/2018] [Accepted: 04/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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11
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Song P, Yao X, Zhong T, Zhang S, Guo Y, Ren W, Huang D, Duan XC, Yin YF, Zhang SS, Zhang X. The anti-tumor efficacy of 3-(2-Nitrophenyl) propionic acid-paclitaxel (NPPA-PTX): a novel paclitaxel bioreductive prodrug. Oncotarget 2018; 7:48467-48480. [PMID: 27366947 PMCID: PMC5217032 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.10310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Accepted: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypoxia is an important microenvironmental pressure present in the majority of solid tumors and, so, tumor hypoxia might be considered an attractive target for tumor therapy. One strategy for targeting hypoxia is to develop bioreductive prodrugs. In the present research, we synthesized a bioreductive paclitaxel prodrug, 3-(2-Nitrophenyl) propionic acid-paclitaxel (NPPA-PTX). The stability of NPPA-PTX in PBS and rat plasma was investigated. The anti-tumor activity of NPPA-PTX was also evaluated in vitro and in vivo. The results of our stability study indicated that NPPA-PTX was stable in PBS and rat plasma as well as in the blood circulation. The in vitro and in vivo anti-tumor activity of NPPA-PTX was confirmed in both KB cells and MDA-MB-231 cells. Our results also indicated that NPPA-PTX could completely convert to active PTX in tumor tissues and produced the anti-tumor activity in both KB and MDA-MB-231 tumor-bearing nude mice. We suggest that the dissociated PTX which converted from NPPA-PTX in tumor tissues played a key role in producing anti-tumor activity. Considering all our results, we suggest that NPPA-PTX is a novel bioreductive PTX prodrug which could undergo further evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Song
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xin Yao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug Delivery Systems, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.,Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Ting Zhong
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug Delivery Systems, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.,Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Shuang Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug Delivery Systems, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.,Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yang Guo
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug Delivery Systems, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.,Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Wei Ren
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug Delivery Systems, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.,Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Dan Huang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug Delivery Systems, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.,Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xiao-Chuan Duan
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug Delivery Systems, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.,Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yi-Fan Yin
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug Delivery Systems, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Shu-Shi Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug Delivery Systems, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xuan Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug Delivery Systems, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.,Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
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12
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Lin S, Li Y, Zheng Y, Luo L, Sun Q, Ge Z, Cheng T, Li R. Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of quinazoline–phosphoramidate mustard conjugates as anticancer drugs. Eur J Med Chem 2017; 127:442-458. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2016.12.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2016] [Revised: 12/26/2016] [Accepted: 12/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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13
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Oroujzadeh N, Gholivand K, Jamalabadi NR. New carbacylamidophosphates containing nicotinamide: Synthesis, crystallography and antibacterial activity. Polyhedron 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.poly.2016.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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14
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Henriques MS, Gorbunov DI, Ponomaryov AN, Saneei A, Pourayoubi M, Dušek M, Zvyagin S, Uhlarz M, Wosnitza J. A monomeric copper-phosphoramide complex: Synthesis, structure, and electronic properties. Polyhedron 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.poly.2016.07.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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15
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Nitroreductase gene-directed enzyme prodrug therapy: insights and advances toward clinical utility. Biochem J 2015; 471:131-53. [PMID: 26431849 DOI: 10.1042/bj20150650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
This review examines the vast catalytic and therapeutic potential offered by type I (i.e. oxygen-insensitive) nitroreductase enzymes in partnership with nitroaromatic prodrugs, with particular focus on gene-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (GDEPT; a form of cancer gene therapy). Important first indications of this potential were demonstrated over 20 years ago, for the enzyme-prodrug pairing of Escherichia coli NfsB and CB1954 [5-(aziridin-1-yl)-2,4-dinitrobenzamide]. However, it has become apparent that both the enzyme and the prodrug in this prototypical pairing have limitations that have impeded their clinical progression. Recently, substantial advances have been made in the biodiscovery and engineering of superior nitroreductase variants, in particular development of elegant high-throughput screening capabilities to enable optimization of desirable activities via directed evolution. These advances in enzymology have been paralleled by advances in medicinal chemistry, leading to the development of second- and third-generation nitroaromatic prodrugs that offer substantial advantages over CB1954 for nitroreductase GDEPT, including greater dose-potency and enhanced ability of the activated metabolite(s) to exhibit a local bystander effect. In addition to forging substantial progress towards future clinical trials, this research is supporting other fields, most notably the development and improvement of targeted cellular ablation capabilities in small animal models, such as zebrafish, to enable cell-specific physiology or regeneration studies.
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16
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Sullivan JA, Tong JL, Wong M, Kumar A, Sarkar H, Ali S, Hussein I, Zaman I, Meredith EL, Helsby NA, Hu L, Wilkinson SR. Unravelling the role of SNM1 in the DNA repair system ofTrypanosoma brucei. Mol Microbiol 2015; 96:827-38. [DOI: 10.1111/mmi.12973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- James A. Sullivan
- School of Biological & Chemical Sciences; Queen Mary University of London; Mile End Road London E1 4NS UK
| | - Jie Lun Tong
- School of Biological & Chemical Sciences; Queen Mary University of London; Mile End Road London E1 4NS UK
| | - Martin Wong
- School of Biological & Chemical Sciences; Queen Mary University of London; Mile End Road London E1 4NS UK
| | - Ambika Kumar
- School of Biological & Chemical Sciences; Queen Mary University of London; Mile End Road London E1 4NS UK
| | - Hajrah Sarkar
- School of Biological & Chemical Sciences; Queen Mary University of London; Mile End Road London E1 4NS UK
| | - Sarah Ali
- School of Biological & Chemical Sciences; Queen Mary University of London; Mile End Road London E1 4NS UK
| | - Ikran Hussein
- School of Biological & Chemical Sciences; Queen Mary University of London; Mile End Road London E1 4NS UK
| | - Iqra Zaman
- School of Biological & Chemical Sciences; Queen Mary University of London; Mile End Road London E1 4NS UK
| | - Emma Louise Meredith
- School of Biological & Chemical Sciences; Queen Mary University of London; Mile End Road London E1 4NS UK
| | - Nuala A. Helsby
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology; University of Auckland; Private Bag 92019 Auckland New Zealand
| | - Longqin Hu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry; Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy; Rutgers; The State University of New Jersey; Piscataway NJ 08854 USA
| | - Shane R. Wilkinson
- School of Biological & Chemical Sciences; Queen Mary University of London; Mile End Road London E1 4NS UK
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Abstract
Due to the propensity of relapse and resistance with prolonged androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), there is a growing interest in developing non-hormonal therapeutic approaches as alternative treatment modalities for hormone refractory prostate cancer (HRPC). Although the standard treatment for HRPC consists of a combination of ADT with taxanes and anthracyclines, the clinical use of chemotherapeutics is limited by systemic toxicity stemming from nondiscriminatory drug exposure to normal tissues. In order to improve the tumor selectivity of chemotherapeutics, various targeted prodrug approaches have been explored. Antibody-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (ADEPT) and gene-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (GDEPT) strategies leverage tumor-specific antigens and transcription factors for the specific delivery of cytotoxic anticancer agents using various prodrug-activating enzymes. In prostate cancer, overexpression of tumor-specific proteases such as prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) is being exploited for selective activation of anticancer prodrugs designed to be activated through proteolysis by these prostate cancer-specific enzymes. PSMA- and PSA-activated prodrugs typically comprise an engineered high-specificity protease peptide substrate coupled to a potent cytotoxic agent via a linker for rapid release of cytotoxic species in the vicinity of prostate cancer cells following proteolytic cleavage. Over the past two decades, various such prodrugs have been developed and they were effective at inhibiting prostate tumor growth in rodent models; several of these prodrug approaches have been advanced to clinical trials and may be developed into effective therapies for HRPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herve Aloysius
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, 08854
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18
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Novel nitro(triazole/imidazole)-based heteroarylamides/sulfonamides as potential antitrypanosomal agents. Eur J Med Chem 2014; 87:79-88. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2014.09.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2014] [Revised: 09/09/2014] [Accepted: 09/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Site-directed delivery of nitric oxide to cancers. Nitric Oxide 2014; 43:8-16. [PMID: 25124221 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2014.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2014] [Revised: 07/15/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is a reactive gaseous free radical which mediates numerous biological processes. At elevated levels, NO is found to be toxic to cancers and hence, a number of strategies for site-directed delivery of NO to cancers are in development during the past two decades. More recently, the focus of research has been to, in conjunction with other cancer drugs deliver NO to cancers for its secondary effects including inhibition of cellular drug efflux pumps. Among the various approaches toward site-selective delivery of exogenous NO sources, enzyme activated nitric oxide donors belonging to the diazeniumdiolate category afford unique advantages including exquisite control of rates of NO generation and selectivity of NO production. For this prodrug approach, enzymes including esterase, glutathione/glutathione S-transferase, DT-diaphorase, and nitroreductase are utilized. Here, we review the design and development of various approaches to enzymatic site-directed delivery of NO to cancers and their potential.
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20
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Novel 3-nitro-1H-1,2,4-triazole-based compounds as potential anti-Chagasic drugs: in vivo studies. Future Med Chem 2014; 5:1763-76. [PMID: 24144412 DOI: 10.4155/fmc.13.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chagas disease is caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, is endemic in Latin America and leads to an estimated 14,000 deaths per year and around 100 million people at risk of infection. Drugs currently used in the treatment of Chagas are old, partially effective and have numerous side effects. METHODOLOGY We have previously reported that 3-nitro-1H-1,2,4-triazole-based compounds demonstrate significant and selective activity against T. cruzi amastigotes in infected L6 cells via activation of a type I nitroreductase, specific to trypanosomatids. In the present work we evaluated in vivo 13 of these compounds based on their high in vitro potency against T. cruzi (IC50 < 1 µM) and selectivity (SI: toxicity to L6 cells/toxicity against T. cruzi amastigotes > 200). Representative compounds of different chemical classes were included. A fast luminescence assay with transgenic parasites that express luciferase, and live imaging techniques were used. A total of 11 out of 13 compounds demonstrated significant antichagasic activity when administered intraperitoneally for 5-10 days at relatively small doses. The best in vivo activity was demonstrated by amides and sulfonamide derivatives. ADMET studies were performed for specific compounds. CONCLUSION At least three compounds were identified as effective, non-toxic antichagasic agents suitable for further development.
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21
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Oliveira FM, Barbosa LCA, Ismail FMD. The diverse pharmacology and medicinal chemistry of phosphoramidates – a review. RSC Adv 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra01454e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Promising examples of the phosphoramidates, which possess antiviral, antitumor, antibacterial, antimalarial and anti-protozoal as well as enzyme inhibitor activity are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luiz C. A. Barbosa
- Department of Chemistry
- Universidade Federal de Viçosa
- Viçosa, Brazil
- Department of Chemistry
- Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais
| | - Fyaz M. D. Ismail
- Medicinal Chemistry Research Group
- Institute for Health Research
- School of Pharmacy & Biomolecular Sciences
- Liverpool John Moores University
- Liverpool, UK
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22
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Buchanan-Kilbey G, Djumpah J, Papadopoulou MV, Bloomer W, Hu L, Wilkinson SR, Ashworth R. Evaluating the developmental toxicity of trypanocidal nitroaromatic compounds on zebrafish. Acta Trop 2013; 128:701-5. [PMID: 23916507 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2013.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2013] [Revised: 07/08/2013] [Accepted: 07/25/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Current therapies against African and American trypanosomiasis are problematic and with no immediate prospect of a vaccine there is an urgent need for cheap, more effective treatments. To aid the drug discovery pipeline, we report a novel in vivo screening approach using zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos as a means of rapidly assessing a compounds developmental toxicity. This technique, amenable to high-throughput screening, was validated using several trypanocidal nitroaromatic prodrugs including nifurtimox and benznidazole.
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23
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Sharma K, Sengupta K, Chakrapani H. Nitroreductase-activated nitric oxide (NO) prodrugs. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013; 23:5964-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2013.08.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2013] [Revised: 07/25/2013] [Accepted: 08/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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24
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Papadopoulou MV, Bloomer WD, Rosenzweig HS, Kaiser M, Chatelain E, Ioset JR. Novel 3-nitro-1H-1,2,4-triazole-based piperazines and 2-amino-1,3-benzothiazoles as antichagasic agents. Bioorg Med Chem 2013; 21:6600-7. [PMID: 24012457 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2013.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2013] [Revised: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 08/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that 3-nitro-1H-1,2,4-triazole-based amines demonstrate significant trypanocidal activity, in particular against Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative parasite of Chagas disease. In the present work we further expanded our research by evaluating in vitro the trypanocidal activity of nitrotriazole-based piperazines and nitrotriazole-based 2-amino-1,3-benzothiazoles to establish additional SARs. All nitrotriazole-based derivatives were active or moderately active against T. cruzi; however two of them did not fulfill the selectivity criteria. Five derivatives were active or moderately active against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense while one derivative was moderately active against Leishmania donovani. Active compounds against T. cruzi demonstrated selectivity indexes (toxicity to host cells/toxicity to T. cruzi amastigotes) from 117 to 1725 and 12 of 13 compounds were up to 39-fold more potent than the reference compound benznidazole. Detailed SARs are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria V Papadopoulou
- NorthShore University HealthSystem, Department of Radiation Medicine, 2650 Ridge Ave., Evanston, IL 60201, USA.
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25
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Gholivand K, Shariatinia Z, Oroujzadeh N. Phosphoramides: Synthesis, Spectroscopy, and X-ray Crystallography. HETEROATOM CHEMISTRY 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/hc.21107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Khodayar Gholivand
- Department of Chemistry; Tarbiat Modares University; P.O. Box 14115-175; Tehran; Iran
| | - Zahra Shariatinia
- Department of Chemistry; Amirkabir University of Technology (Polytechnic); P.O. Box 15875-4413; Tehran; Iran
| | - Nasrin Oroujzadeh
- Department of Chemical Industries; Iranian Research Organization for Science and Technology (IROST); P.O. Box: 33535-111; Tehran; Iran
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26
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Voak AA, Gobalakrishnapillai V, Seifert K, Balczo E, Hu L, Hall BS, Wilkinson SR. An essential type I nitroreductase from Leishmania major can be used to activate leishmanicidal prodrugs. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:28466-76. [PMID: 23946481 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.494781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitroaromatic prodrugs are used to treat a range of microbial infections with selectivity achieved by specific activation reactions. For trypanosomatid parasites, this is mediated by type I nitroreductases. Here, we demonstrate that the causative agent of leishmaniasis, Leishmania major, expresses an FMN-containing nitroreductase (LmNTR) that metabolizes a wide range of substrates, and based on electron donor and acceptor preferences, it may function as an NADH:quinone oxidoreductase. Using gene deletion approaches, we demonstrate that this activity is essential to L. major promastigotes, the parasite forms found in the insect vector. Intriguingly, LmNTR(+/-) heterozygote promastigote parasites could readily differentiate into infectious metacyclic cells but these were unable to establish infections in cultured mammalian cells and caused delayed pathology in mice. Furthermore, we exploit the LmNTR activity evaluating a library of nitrobenzylphosphoramide mustards using biochemical and phenotypic screens. We identify a subset of compounds that display significant growth inhibitory properties against the intracellular parasite form found in the mammalian hosts. The leishmanicidal activity was shown to be LmNTR-specific as the LmNTR(+/-) heterozygote promastigotes displayed resistance to the most potent mustards. We conclude that LmNTR can be targeted for drug development by exploiting its prodrug activating property or by designing specific inhibitors to block its endogenous function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew A Voak
- From the Queen Mary Pre-Clinical Drug Discovery Group, School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, United Kingdom
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27
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Zhou L, Stewart G, Rideau E, Westwood NJ, Smith TK. A class of 5-nitro-2-furancarboxylamides with potent trypanocidal activity against Trypanosoma brucei in vitro. J Med Chem 2013; 56:796-806. [PMID: 23281892 PMCID: PMC3579312 DOI: 10.1021/jm301215e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Recently, the World Health Organization approved the nifurtimox-eflornithine combination therapy for the treatment of human African trypanosomiasis, renewing interest in nitroheterocycle therapies for this and associated diseases. In this study, we have synthesized a series of novel 5-nitro-2-furancarboxylamides that show potent trypanocidal activity, ∼1000-fold more potent than nifurtimox against in vitro Trypanosoma brucei with very low cytotoxicity against human HeLa cells. More importantly, the most potent analogue showed very limited cross-resistance to nifurtimox-resistant cells and vice versa. This implies that our novel, relatively easy to synthesize and therefore cheap, 5-nitro-2-furancarboxylamides are targeting a different, but still essential, biochemical process to those targeted by nifurtimox or its metabolites in the parasites. The significant increase in potency (smaller dose probably required) has the potential for greatly reducing unwanted side effects and also reducing the likelihood of drug resistance. Collectively, these findings have important implications for the future therapeutic treatment of African sleeping sickness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linna Zhou
- School of Chemistry and EaStCHEM, The North Haugh, The University of St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, Scotland, UK
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28
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Steroidal esters of the aromatic nitrogen mustard 2-[4-N,N-bis(2-chloroethyl)amino-phenyl]butanoic acid (2-PHE-BU). Anticancer Drugs 2013. [DOI: 10.1097/cad.0b013e328357f687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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29
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Yang Y, Voak A, Wilkinson SR, Hu L. Design, synthesis, and evaluation of potential prodrugs of DFMO for reductive activation. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2012; 22:6583-6. [PMID: 23031595 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2012] [Revised: 08/31/2012] [Accepted: 09/04/2012] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
A series of potential DFMO prodrugs was designed through the incorporation of 4-nitrobenzyl ester or carbamate groups for potential activation by trypanosomal nitroreductase. It was found that only modification of N(ε)-amino group of DFMO by 4-nitro-2-fluorobenzyloxycarbonyl resulted in significant trypanocidal activity and could serve as a lead for further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhui Yang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
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30
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Targeting the substrate preference of a type I nitroreductase to develop antitrypanosomal quinone-based prodrugs. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012; 56:5821-30. [PMID: 22948871 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01227-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitroheterocyclic prodrugs are used to treat infections caused by Trypanosoma cruzi and Trypanosoma brucei. A key component in selectivity involves a specific activation step mediated by a protein homologous with type I nitroreductases, enzymes found predominantly in prokaryotes. Using data from determinations based on flavin cofactor, oxygen-insensitive activity, substrate range, and inhibition profiles, we demonstrate that NTRs from T. cruzi and T. brucei display many characteristics of their bacterial counterparts. Intriguingly, both enzymes preferentially use NADH and quinones as the electron donor and acceptor, respectively, suggesting that they may function as NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductases in the parasite mitochondrion. We exploited this preference to determine the trypanocidal activity of a library of aziridinyl benzoquinones against bloodstream-form T. brucei. Biochemical screens using recombinant NTR demonstrated that several quinones were effective substrates for the parasite enzyme, having K(cat)/K(m) values 2 orders of magnitude greater than those of nifurtimox and benznidazole. In tests against T. brucei, antiparasitic activity mirrored the biochemical data, with the most potent compounds generally being preferred enzyme substrates. Trypanocidal activity was shown to be NTR dependent, as parasites with elevated levels of this enzyme were hypersensitive to the aziridinyl agent. By unraveling the biochemical characteristics exhibited by the trypanosomal NTRs, we have shown that quinone-based compounds represent a class of trypanocidal compound.
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31
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Papadopoulou MV, Bloomer WD, Rosenzweig HS, Chatelain E, Kaiser M, Wilkinson SR, McKenzie C, Ioset JR. Novel 3-nitro-1H-1,2,4-triazole-based amides and sulfonamides as potential antitrypanosomal agents. J Med Chem 2012; 55:5554-65. [PMID: 22550999 DOI: 10.1021/jm300508n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
A series of novel 3-nitro-1H-1,2,4-triazole-based (and in some cases 2-nitro-1H-imidazole-based) amides and sulfonamides were characterized for their in vitro antitrypanosomal and antileishmanial activities as well as mammalian toxicity. Out of 36 compounds tested, 29 (mostly 3-nitro-1H-1,2,4-triazoles) displayed significant activity against Trypanosoma cruzi intracellular amastigotes (IC(50) ranging from 28 nM to 3.72 μM) without concomitant toxicity to L6 host cells (selectivity 66-2782). Twenty-three of these active compounds were more potent (up to 58-fold) than the reference drug benznidazole, tested in parallel. In addition, nine nitrotriazoles which were moderately active (0.5 μM ≤ IC(50) < 6.0 μM) against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense trypomastigotes were 5-31-fold more active against bloodstream-form Trypanosoma brucei brucei trypomastigotes engineered to overexpress reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide dependent nitroreductase. Finally, three nitrotriazoles displayed a moderate activity against the axenic form of Leishmania donovani . Therefore, 3-nitro-1H-1,2,4-triazole-based amides and sulfonamides are potent antitrypanosomal agents.
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32
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Papadopoulou MV, Trunz BB, Bloomer WD, McKenzie C, Wilkinson SR, Prasittichai C, Brun R, Kaiser M, Torreele E. Novel 3-nitro-1H-1,2,4-triazole-based aliphatic and aromatic amines as anti-chagasic agents. J Med Chem 2011; 54:8214-23. [PMID: 22023653 DOI: 10.1021/jm201215n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A series of novel 2-nitro-1H-imidazole- and 3-nitro-1H-1,2,4-triazole-based aromatic and aliphatic amines were screened for antitrypanosomal activity and mammalian cytotoxicity by the Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative (DNDi). Out of 42 compounds tested, 18 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazoles and one 2-nitroimidazole displayed significant growth inhibitory properties against T. cruzi amastigotes (IC(50) ranging from 40 nM to 1.97 μM), without concomitant toxicity toward the host cells (L6 cells), having selectivity indices (SI) 44-1320. Most (16) of these active compounds were up to 33.8-fold more potent than the reference drug benznidazole, tested in parallel. Five novel 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazoles were active against bloodstream-form (BSF) T. b. rhodesiense trypomastigotes (IC(50) at nM levels and SI 220-993). An NADH-dependent nitroreductase (TbNTR) plays a role in the antiparasitic activity because BSF T. b. brucei trypomastigotes with elevated TbNTR levels were hypersensitive to tested compounds. Therefore, a novel class of affordable 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazole-based compounds with antitrypanosomal activity has been identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria V Papadopoulou
- NorthShore University HealthSystem, Department of Radiation Medicine, Evanston, Illinois 60201, United States.
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