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Di L. The Impact of Carboxylesterases in Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics. Curr Drug Metab 2019; 20:91-102. [PMID: 30129408 PMCID: PMC6635651 DOI: 10.2174/1389200219666180821094502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Carboxylesterases (CES) play a critical role in catalyzing hydrolysis of esters, amides, carbamates and thioesters, as well as bioconverting prodrugs and soft drugs. The unique tissue distribution of CES enzymes provides great opportunities to design prodrugs or soft drugs for tissue targeting. Marked species differences in CES tissue distribution and catalytic activity are particularly challenging in human translation. METHODS Review and summarization of CES fundamentals and applications in drug discovery and development. RESULTS Human CES1 is one of the most highly expressed drug metabolizing enzymes in the liver, while human intestine only expresses CES2. CES enzymes have moderate to high inter-individual variability and exhibit low to no expression in the fetus, but increase substantially during the first few months of life. The CES genes are highly polymorphic and some CES genetic variants show significant influence on metabolism and clinical outcome of certain drugs. Monkeys appear to be more predictive of human pharmacokinetics for CES substrates than other species. Low risk of clinical drug-drug interaction is anticipated for CES, although they should not be overlooked, particularly interaction with alcohols. CES enzymes are moderately inducible through a number of transcription factors and can be repressed by inflammatory cytokines. CONCLUSION Although significant advances have been made in our understanding of CESs, in vitro - in vivo extrapolation of clearance is still in its infancy and further exploration is needed. In vitro and in vivo tools are continuously being developed to characterize CES substrates and inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Di
- Pfizer Inc., Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut, CT 06354, United States
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2
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Jiang L, He Y, Luo G, Yang Y, Li G, Zhang Y. Discovery of potential novel microsomal triglyceride transfer protein inhibitors via virtual screening of pharmacophore modelling and molecular docking. MOLECULAR SIMULATION 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/08927022.2016.1149701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ludi Jiang
- Key Laboratory of TCM-information Engineer of State Administration of TCM, School of Chinese Material Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Yusu He
- Key Laboratory of TCM-information Engineer of State Administration of TCM, School of Chinese Material Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Ganggang Luo
- Key Laboratory of TCM-information Engineer of State Administration of TCM, School of Chinese Material Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Yongqiang Yang
- Key Laboratory of TCM-information Engineer of State Administration of TCM, School of Chinese Material Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Gongyu Li
- Key Laboratory of TCM-information Engineer of State Administration of TCM, School of Chinese Material Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Yanling Zhang
- Key Laboratory of TCM-information Engineer of State Administration of TCM, School of Chinese Material Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, P.R. China
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Hooper AJ, Burnett JR, Watts GF. Contemporary Aspects of the Biology and Therapeutic Regulation of the Microsomal Triglyceride Transfer Protein. Circ Res 2015; 116:193-205. [DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.116.304637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Amanda J. Hooper
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, PathWest Laboratory Medicine WA (A.J.H., J.R.B.), School of Medicine and Pharmacology (A.J.H., J.R.B., G.F.W.), School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine (A.J.H), and Lipid Disorders Clinic, Cardiovascular Medicine (J.R.B., G.F.W), Royal Perth Hospital, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - John R. Burnett
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, PathWest Laboratory Medicine WA (A.J.H., J.R.B.), School of Medicine and Pharmacology (A.J.H., J.R.B., G.F.W.), School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine (A.J.H), and Lipid Disorders Clinic, Cardiovascular Medicine (J.R.B., G.F.W), Royal Perth Hospital, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Gerald F. Watts
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, PathWest Laboratory Medicine WA (A.J.H., J.R.B.), School of Medicine and Pharmacology (A.J.H., J.R.B., G.F.W.), School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine (A.J.H), and Lipid Disorders Clinic, Cardiovascular Medicine (J.R.B., G.F.W), Royal Perth Hospital, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
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5
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Jennings P, Schwarz M, Landesmann B, Maggioni S, Goumenou M, Bower D, Leonard MO, Wiseman JS. SEURAT-1 liver gold reference compounds: a mechanism-based review. Arch Toxicol 2014; 88:2099-133. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-014-1410-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2014] [Accepted: 10/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) is a key protein in the secretion of apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins. Its pharmacological inhibition is associated with a decrease in LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) and triglycerides. However, the clinical use of MTP inhibitors has been uncertain because of the gastrointestinal adverse events and the increase in liver fat content observed during their administration. RECENT FINDINGS Lomitapide, a systemic MTP inhibitor, significantly reduces LDL-C in homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (hoFH) when administered concurrently with other lipid-lowering therapies, including apheresis. Its lipid-lowering effect is additive to that of existing drugs. In the presence of an up-titration regiment and low-fat diet, lomitapide is generally well tolerated and liver fat accumulation stabilizes after the initial increase. Elevation of alanine aminotranferase levels greater than 3 times the upper limit of normal can be managed successfully with temporary dose reduction. Drug-drug interaction studies show that concomitant treatment of lomitapide with other lipid-lowering drugs is generally safe. Based on these findings, lomitapide was recently approved for the treatment of hoFH as add-on therapy. SUMMARY MTP inhibition is a valuable therapeutic approach for hoFH. Long-term safety consequences of liver fat accumulation will need to be assessed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Cuchel
- Department of Medicine, Division of Translational Medicine and Human Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA.
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Drakopoulou M, Toutouzas K, Stefanadis C. Novel pharmacotherapies of familial hyperlipidemia. Pharmacol Ther 2013; 139:301-12. [PMID: 23639874 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2013.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2013] [Accepted: 04/16/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Familial hyperlipidemia is an inherited metabolic disorder characterized by elevated lipid and/or lipoprotein levels in the blood. Despite improvements in lipid-lowering therapy during the last decades, it still remains a substantial contributor to the incidence of cardiovascular disease since patients on current conventional therapies do not achieve their target LDL-cholesterol levels. With a view to lower LDL-cholesterol levels, a number of new therapeutic strategies have been developed over recent years. In this review, we provide an overview of these treatment options that are currently in clinical development and may offer alternative or adjunctive therapies for this high-risk population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Drakopoulou
- 1st Department of Cardiology, Athens Medical School, Hippokration Hospital, Athens, Greece
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8
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Kohonen P, Benfenati E, Bower D, Ceder R, Crump M, Cross K, Grafström RC, Healy L, Helma C, Jeliazkova N, Jeliazkov V, Maggioni S, Miller S, Myatt G, Rautenberg M, Stacey G, Willighagen E, Wiseman J, Hardy B. The ToxBank Data Warehouse: Supporting the Replacement of In Vivo Repeated Dose Systemic Toxicity Testing. Mol Inform 2013; 32:47-63. [PMID: 27481023 DOI: 10.1002/minf.201200114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2012] [Accepted: 11/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the SEURAT-1 (Safety Evaluation Ultimately Replacing Animal Testing-1) research cluster, comprised of seven EU FP7 Health projects co-financed by Cosmetics Europe, is to generate a proof-of-concept to show how the latest technologies, systems toxicology and toxicogenomics can be combined to deliver a test replacement for repeated dose systemic toxicity testing on animals. The SEURAT-1 strategy is to adopt a mode-of-action framework to describe repeated dose toxicity, combining in vitro and in silico methods to derive predictions of in vivo toxicity responses. ToxBank is the cross-cluster infrastructure project whose activities include the development of a data warehouse to provide a web-accessible shared repository of research data and protocols, a physical compounds repository, reference or "gold compounds" for use across the cluster (available via wiki.toxbank.net), and a reference resource for biomaterials. Core technologies used in the data warehouse include the ISA-Tab universal data exchange format, REpresentational State Transfer (REST) web services, the W3C Resource Description Framework (RDF) and the OpenTox standards. We describe the design of the data warehouse based on cluster requirements, the implementation based on open standards, and finally the underlying concepts and initial results of a data analysis utilizing public data related to the gold compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Lyn Healy
- National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, UK
| | | | | | | | - Silvia Maggioni
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Glyn Stacey
- National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, UK
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Ryder T, Walker GS, Goosen TC, Ruggeri RB, Conn EL, Rocke BN, Lapham K, Steppan CM, Hepworth D, Kalgutkar AS. Insights into the Novel Hydrolytic Mechanism of a Diethyl 2-Phenyl-2-(2-arylacetoxy)methyl Malonate Ester-Based Microsomal Triglyceride Transfer Protein (MTP) Inhibitor. Chem Res Toxicol 2012; 25:2138-52. [DOI: 10.1021/tx300243v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Tim Ryder
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism−New
Chemical Entities, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Gregory S. Walker
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism−New
Chemical Entities, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Theunis C. Goosen
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism−New
Chemical Entities, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Roger B. Ruggeri
- Cardiovascular Metabolic and Endocrine Diseases Medicinal
Chemistry, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Edward L. Conn
- Cardiovascular Metabolic and Endocrine Diseases
Medicinal Chemistry, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Benjamin N. Rocke
- Cardiovascular Metabolic and Endocrine Diseases
Medicinal Chemistry, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Kimberly Lapham
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism−New
Chemical Entities, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Claire M. Steppan
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism−New
Chemical Entities, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - David Hepworth
- Cardiovascular Metabolic and Endocrine Diseases Medicinal
Chemistry, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Amit S. Kalgutkar
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism−New
Chemical Entities, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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Huang LZ, Zhu HB. Novel LDL-oriented pharmacotherapeutical strategies. Pharmacol Res 2012; 65:402-10. [PMID: 22306845 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2012.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2011] [Revised: 12/30/2011] [Accepted: 01/16/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Elevated levels of low-density cholesterol (LDL-C) are highly correlated with increased risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Thus, current guidelines have recommended progressively lower LDL-C for cholesterol treatment and CVD prevention as the primary goal of therapy. Even so, some patients in the high risk category fail to achieve recommended LDL-C targets with currently available medications. Thereby, additional pharmaceutical strategies are urgently required. In the review, we aim to provide an overview of both current and emerging LDL-C lowering drugs. As for current available LDL-C lowering agents, attentions are mainly focused on statins, niacin, bile acid sequestrants, ezetimibe, fibrates and omega-3 fatty acids. On the other hand, the emerging drugs differ from mechanisms are including: intervention of cholesterol biosynthesis downstream enzyme (squalene synthase inhibitors), inhibition of lipoprotein assembly (antisense mRNA inhibitors of apolipoprotein B and microsomal transfer protein inhibitors), enhanced lipoprotein clearance (proprotein convertase subtilisin kexin type 9, thyroid hormone analogues), inhibition of intestinal cholesterol absorption (Niemann-Pick C1-like 1 protein and acyl coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase inhibitors) and interrupting enterohepatic circulation (apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter inhibitors). Several ongoing agents are in their different stages of clinical trials, in expectation of promising antihyperlipidemic drugs. Therefore, alternative drugs monotherapy or in combination with statins will be sufficient to reduce LDL-C concentrations to optimal levels, and a new era for better LDL-C managements is plausible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin-Zhang Huang
- State Key Laboratory for Bioactive Substances and Functions of Natural Medicines & Ministry of Health, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Nanwei Road A2, Beijing 100050, PR China
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