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Khalil AM, Nogales A, Martínez-Sobrido L, Mostafa A. Antiviral responses versus virus-induced cellular shutoff: a game of thrones between influenza A virus NS1 and SARS-CoV-2 Nsp1. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 14:1357866. [PMID: 38375361 PMCID: PMC10875036 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1357866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Following virus recognition of host cell receptors and viral particle/genome internalization, viruses replicate in the host via hijacking essential host cell machinery components to evade the provoked antiviral innate immunity against the invading pathogen. Respiratory viral infections are usually acute with the ability to activate pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) in/on host cells, resulting in the production and release of interferons (IFNs), proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) to reduce virus fitness and mitigate infection. Nevertheless, the game between viruses and the host is a complicated and dynamic process, in which they restrict each other via specific factors to maintain their own advantages and win this game. The primary role of the non-structural protein 1 (NS1 and Nsp1) of influenza A viruses (IAV) and the pandemic severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), respectively, is to control antiviral host-induced innate immune responses. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the genesis, spatial structure, viral and cellular interactors, and the mechanisms underlying the unique biological functions of IAV NS1 and SARS-CoV-2 Nsp1 in infected host cells. We also highlight the role of both non-structural proteins in modulating viral replication and pathogenicity. Eventually, and because of their important role during viral infection, we also describe their promising potential as targets for antiviral therapy and the development of live attenuated vaccines (LAV). Conclusively, both IAV NS1 and SARS-CoV-2 Nsp1 play an important role in virus-host interactions, viral replication, and pathogenesis, and pave the way to develop novel prophylactic and/or therapeutic interventions for the treatment of these important human respiratory viral pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Magdy Khalil
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Host Pathogen Interactions Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, United States
- Department of Zoonotic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Aitor Nogales
- Center for Animal Health Research, CISA-INIA-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis Martínez-Sobrido
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Host Pathogen Interactions Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Ahmed Mostafa
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Host Pathogen Interactions Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, United States
- Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt
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2
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Annes SB, Perumal K, Anandhakumar K, Shankar B, Ramesh S. Transition-Metal-Free Dehydrogenation of Benzyl Alcohol for C-C and C-N Bond Formation for the Synthesis of Pyrazolo[3,4- b]pyridine and Pyrazoline Derivatives. J Org Chem 2023; 88:6039-6057. [PMID: 37125502 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.3c00382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
A series of cascade reactions that produce a range of functionalized aromatic heterocyclic compounds with pyrazole/pyrazoline cores have been developed. The method relies on a metal-free dehydrogenative process to produce in-situ benzaldehydes. The produced benzaldehyde was then allowed to react with some other substances, including acetophenone, pyrazole amine, and phenylhydrazine. The intermediate produced from these substrates underwent several chemical processes, including electrocyclization, the aza-Diels-Alder reaction, and the formation of intramolecular C-N bonds. These positive outcomes would open up the possibility of producing biologically active pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine and pyrazoline derivatives through a variety of possible reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sesuraj Babiola Annes
- Department of Chemistry, School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613 401, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Karuppaiah Perumal
- Department of Chemistry, School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613 401, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Kalaiselvan Anandhakumar
- Department of Chemistry, School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613 401, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Bhaskaran Shankar
- Department of Chemistry, Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai 625 015, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Subburethinam Ramesh
- Department of Chemistry, School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613 401, Tamil Nadu, India
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3
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Dimethyl Sulfoxide-Assisted, Iodine- and Ascorbic Acid-Catalyzed One-Pot Synthetic Approach for Constructing Highly Substituted Pyrazolo[1,5- a]quinoline Thioether Derivatives. J Org Chem 2022; 87:13856-13872. [PMID: 36215433 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.2c01557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
A dimethyl sulfoxide-assisted and iodine/ascorbic acid-catalyzed simple approach to pyrazolo[1,5-a]quinoline thioether derivatives 22 is described. The compounds were identified using 1H NMR, 13C NMR, high-resolution mass spectrometry, and single-crystal X-ray diffractometry. The pyrazolo[1,5-a]quinoline thioether was synthesized in a stepwise fashion through aryl sulfenylation and benzannulation strategies. The generated heteroaryl thioether compounds 23 were exposed to the benzannulation path to produce pyrazolo[1,5-a]quinoline thioether 22. The benzannulation reaction proceeds by way of diazotization of the pyrazole amine derivative 23, radical generation by the removal of nitrogen, and eventually trapping of the aryl radical with the support of phenylacetylene 19. A catalytic amount of ascorbic acid aided the benzannulation reaction. There were several other control studies conducted, including trapping reactions with isopropenyl acetate, tetramethylpiperidine N-oxyl reactions, and reactions without phenylacetylene. Since a change in the substitution has previously demonstrated substantial bioactivity, the core structure of pyrazole was evaluated for functional group tolerance. A reasonable mechanism is then proposed, accompanied by the support of control experiments and scope. A Suzuki reaction was used to create an aryl/heteroaryl compound 35 from one of the synthesized compounds 22b. In the controlled oxidation reaction paths, molecule 22a was selectively transformed into the corresponding sulfoxide 32 and sulfone 33.
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4
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Smolobochkin AV, Gazizov AS, Garifzyanov AR, Burilov AR, Pudovik MA. Methods for the synthesis of 1H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine derivatives. Russ Chem Bull 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11172-022-3487-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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5
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Donaire-Arias A, Montagut AM, Puig de la Bellacasa R, Estrada-Tejedor R, Teixidó J, Borrell JI. 1 H-Pyrazolo[3,4- b]pyridines: Synthesis and Biomedical Applications. Molecules 2022; 27:2237. [PMID: 35408636 PMCID: PMC9000541 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27072237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridines are a group of heterocyclic compounds presenting two possible tautomeric forms: the 1H- and 2H-isomers. More than 300,000 1H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridines have been described which are included in more than 5500 references (2400 patents) up to date. This review will cover the analysis of the diversity of the substituents present at positions N1, C3, C4, C5, and C6, the synthetic methods used for their synthesis, starting from both a preformed pyrazole or pyridine, and the biomedical applications of such compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - José I. Borrell
- Grup de Química Farmacèutica, IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, Via Augusta 390, E-08017 Barcelona, Spain; (A.D.-A.); (A.M.M.); (R.P.d.l.B.); (R.E.-T.); (J.T.)
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6
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Scott JA, Soto-Velasquez M, Hayes MP, LaVigne JE, Miller HR, Kaur J, Ejendal KFK, Watts VJ, Flaherty DP. Optimization of a Pyrimidinone Series for Selective Inhibition of Ca 2+/Calmodulin-Stimulated Adenylyl Cyclase 1 Activity for the Treatment of Chronic Pain. J Med Chem 2022; 65:4667-4686. [PMID: 35271288 PMCID: PMC9390083 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Adenylyl cyclase type 1 (AC1) is involved in signaling for chronic pain sensitization in the central nervous system and is an emerging target for the treatment of chronic pain. AC1 and a closely related isoform AC8 are also implicated to have roles in learning and memory signaling processes. Our team has carried out cellular screening for inhibitors of AC1 yielding a pyrazolyl-pyrimidinone scaffold with low micromolar potency against AC1 and selectivity versus AC8. Structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies led to analogues with cellular IC50 values as low as 0.25 μM, selectivity versus AC8 and other AC isoforms as well as other common neurological targets. A representative analogue displayed modest antiallodynic effects in a mouse model of inflammatory pain. This series represents the most potent and selective inhibitors of Ca2+/calmodulin-stimulated AC1 activity to date with improved drug-like physicochemical properties making them potential lead compounds for the treatment of inflammatory pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason A Scott
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Monica Soto-Velasquez
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Michael P Hayes
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Justin E LaVigne
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Heath R Miller
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Jatinder Kaur
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Karin F K Ejendal
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Val J Watts
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Purdue Institute for Drug Discovery, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, 207 South Martin Jischke Dr. West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Daniel P Flaherty
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Purdue Institute for Drug Discovery, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, 207 South Martin Jischke Dr. West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
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Zhou Y, Wang LS, Lei SG, Gao YX, Ma JT, Yu ZC, Wu YD, Wu AX. I 2-Promoted site-selective C–C bond cleavage of aryl methyl ketones as C1 synthons for constructing 5-acyl-1 H-pyrazolo[3,4- b]pyridines. Org Chem Front 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2qo00676f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
A novel iodine promoted [1 + 3 + 2] cleavage cyclization reaction for the synthesis of 1H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridines from aryl methyl ketones, 5-aminopyrazoles and enaminones has been established.
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Affiliation(s)
- You Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P. R. China
| | - Li-Sheng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P. R. China
| | - Shuang-Gui Lei
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P. R. China
| | - Yun-Xiang Gao
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P. R. China
| | - Jin-Tian Ma
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P. R. China
| | - Zhi-Cheng Yu
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P. R. China
| | - Yan-Dong Wu
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P. R. China
| | - An-Xin Wu
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, P. R. China
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Novel Substituted Purine Isosteres: Synthesis, Structure-Activity Relationships and Cytotoxic Activity Evaluation. Molecules 2021; 27:molecules27010247. [PMID: 35011476 PMCID: PMC8746528 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27010247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A number of pyrrolo[2,3-c]pyridines, pyrrolo[3,2-d]pyrimidines and pyrazolo[4,3-d]pyrimidines were designed and synthesized as antiproliferative agents. The target compounds possessed selected substituents in analogous positions on the central scaffold that allowed the extraction of interesting SARs. The cytotoxic activity of the new derivatives was evaluated against prostatic (PC-3) and colon (HCT116) cell lines, and the most potent analogues showed IC50 values in the nM to low µM range, while they were found to be non-toxic against normal human fibroblasts (WI-38). Flow cytometric analysis of DNA content revealed that the most promising derivative 14b caused a statistically significant accumulation of PC-3 cells at G2/M phase and induced apoptosis in PC-3 cells.
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9
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Structure and Activities of the NS1 Influenza Protein and Progress in the Development of Small-Molecule Drugs. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22084242. [PMID: 33921888 PMCID: PMC8074201 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22084242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Revised: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The influenza virus causes human disease on a global scale and significant morbidity and mortality. The existing vaccination regime remains vulnerable to antigenic drift, and more seriously, a small number of viral mutations could lead to drug resistance. Therefore, the development of a new additional therapeutic small molecule-based anti-influenza virus is urgently required. The NS1 influenza gene plays a pivotal role in the suppression of host antiviral responses, especially by inhibiting interferon (IFN) production and the activities of antiviral proteins, such as dsRNA-dependent serine/threonine-protein kinase R (PKR) and 2′-5′-oligoadenylate synthetase (OAS)/RNase L. NS1 also modulates important aspects of viral RNA replication, viral protein synthesis, and virus replication cycle. Taken together, small molecules that target NS1 are believed to offer a means of developing new anti-influenza drugs.
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Terrier O, Slama-Schwok A. Anti-Influenza Drug Discovery and Development: Targeting the Virus and Its Host by All Possible Means. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1322:195-218. [PMID: 34258742 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-16-0267-2_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Infections by influenza virus constitute a major and recurrent threat for human health. Together with vaccines, antiviral drugs play a key role in the prevention and treatment of influenza virus infection and disease. Today, the number of antiviral molecules approved for the treatment of influenza is relatively limited, and their use is threatened by the emergence of viral strains with resistance mutations. There is therefore a real need to expand the prophylactic and therapeutic arsenal. This chapter summarizes the state of the art in drug discovery and development for the treatment of influenza virus infections, with a focus on both virus-targeting and host cell-targeting strategies. Novel antiviral strategies targeting other viral proteins or targeting the host cell, some of which are based on drug repurposing, may be used in combination to strengthen our therapeutic arsenal against this major pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Terrier
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, (Team VirPath), Univ Lyon, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, ENS de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Anny Slama-Schwok
- Sorbonne Université, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine, INSERM U938, Biologie et Thérapeutique du Cancer, Paris, France.
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11
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Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Influenza A Virus NS1 Reveal a Remarkably Stable RNA-Binding Domain Harboring Promising Druggable Pockets. Viruses 2020; 12:v12050537. [PMID: 32422922 PMCID: PMC7290946 DOI: 10.3390/v12050537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The non-structural protein NS1 of influenza A viruses is considered to be the major antagonist of the interferon system and antiviral defenses of the cell. It could therefore represent a suitable target for novel antiviral strategies. As a first step towards the identification of small compounds targeting NS1, we here investigated the druggable potential of its RNA-binding domain since this domain is essential to the biological activities of NS1. We explored the flexibility of the full-length protein by running molecular dynamics simulations on one of its published crystal structures. While the RNA-binding domain structure was remarkably stable along the simulations, we identified a flexible site at the two extremities of the “groove” that is delimited by the antiparallel α-helices that make up its RNA-binding interface. This groove region is able to form potential binding pockets, which, in 60% of the conformations, meet the druggability criteria. We characterized these pockets and identified the residues that contribute to their druggability. All the residues involved in the druggable pockets are essential at the same time to the stability of the RNA-binding domain and to the biological activities of NS1. They are also strictly conserved across the large sequence diversity of NS1, emphasizing the robustness of this search towards the identification of broadly active NS1-targeting compounds.
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12
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Shen Z, Wang G, Yang Y, Shi J, Fang L, Li F, Xiao S, Fu ZF, Peng G. A conserved region of nonstructural protein 1 from alphacoronaviruses inhibits host gene expression and is critical for viral virulence. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:13606-13618. [PMID: 31350335 PMCID: PMC6746460 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.009713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Revised: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Coronaviruses are enveloped, single-stranded RNA viruses that are distributed worldwide. They include transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), and the human coronaviruses severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), many of which seriously endanger human health and well-being. Only alphacoronaviruses and betacoronaviruses harbor nonstructural protein 1 (nsp1), which performs multiple functions in inhibiting antiviral host responses. The role of the C terminus of betacoronavirus nsp1 in virulence has been characterized, but the location of the alphacoronavirus nsp1 region that is important for virulence remains unclear. Here, using TGEV nsp1 as a model to explore the function of this protein in alphacoronaviruses, we demonstrate that alphacoronavirus nsp1 inhibits host gene expression. Solving the crystal structure of full-length TGEV at 1.85-Å resolution and conducting several biochemical analyses, we observed that a specific motif (amino acids 91-95) of alphacoronavirus nsp1 is a conserved region that inhibits host protein synthesis. Using a reverse-genetics system based on CRISPR/Cas9 technology to construct a recombinant TGEV in which this specific nsp1 motif was altered, we found that this mutation does not affect virus replication in cell culture but significantly reduces TGEV pathogenicity in pigs. Taken together, our findings suggest that alphacoronavirus nsp1 is an essential virulence determinant, providing a potential paradigm for the development of a new attenuated vaccine based on modified nsp1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhou Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Gang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Yiling Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Jiale Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Liurong Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Fang Li
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota 55108
| | - Shaobo Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Zhen F Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China.,Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602
| | - Guiqing Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China .,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China.,College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
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