Is the Drive for Muscularity Scale a valid and reliable instrument for young adult women?

Relationships between media influence, body image and sociocultural appearance ideals in Latin America: A systematic literature review

The rapidly growing body of research investigating media influence on body image in Latin America has not been previously comprehensively synthesised. We systematically reviewed studies of the relationships between media use/influence, body image, and sociocultural appearance ideals in Latin America (CRD42021254607). We searched PsycINFO/Medline, Pubmed, Web of Science, ERIC, Scopus, ProQuest Dissertations, SciElo, and LILACS for quantitative and qualitative peer-reviewed articles and doctoral theses in English, Spanish, and Portuguese. Research conducted in Latin America, published 1991-2023, measuring a) media use/influence, and b) body image or appearance ideals was included. 68 articles met inclusion criteria, and quality appraisal concluded that most were of medium/high quality. A narrative review found consistent quantitative relationships, stronger in women than men, between media use/internalisation of media ideals and both body dissatisfaction and thinner appearance ideals. In contrast, participants in qualitative studies acknowledged media influence on their body image, but perceived greater influence from family and peers. Limitations included a predominance of cross-sectional research from Brazil and Mexico with adolescents and young adults. Additional longitudinal, experimental, and interventional work from elsewhere in Latin America is needed, recruiting more diverse samples and assessing more culturally salient appearance aspects (e.g., skin tone and hair texture).

Negative emotional eating patterns in general Chinese adults: A replication and expansion study examining group differences in eating disorder symptomatology, psychosocial impairment, and emotion regulation difficulties

Previous research identified four patterns of negative emotional eating in American and Chinese university students and proposed future directions (e.g., exploring potential differences in emotion regulation across patterns and replicating the patterns in a general, non-student population). Furthermore, prior research has not explored group differences in muscularity-oriented eating disorder symptomatology or psychosocial impairment. Therefore, the present study addressed these gaps in a sample of general Chinese adults, further testing group differences in typical and muscularity-oriented eating disorder symptomatology, psychosocial impairment, and emotion regulation difficulties across patterns of negative emotional eating. A total of 600 Chinese adults were recruited. Latent class analysis (LCA) was used. Results replicated the four patterns of negative emotional eating in previous research, including non-emotional eating (non-EE), emotional over- and under-eating (EOE-EUE), emotional over-eating (EOE), and emotional under-eating (EUE). Significant class differences were identified in eating disorder symptomatology, psychosocial impairment, and emotion regulation difficulties. Specifically, individuals with EOE and EOE-EUE patterns exhibited higher eating disorder symptomatology, higher psychosocial impairment, and more emotion regulation difficulties than those with non-EE and EUE patterns. Therefore, these two classes (i.e., EOE and EOE-EUE), especially the poorly researched EOE-EUE group, should be further examined to elucidate research and clinical applications. Furthermore, findings underscore the role of emotion regulation difficulties in further describing the differences across these negative emotional eating patterns, which can be considered in future interventions for reducing negative emotional eating.

Preventing eating pathology among elite adolescent ballet dancers: a pilot trial of the Athlete Body Project

Adolescent ballet dancers are commonly recognized as aesthetic athletes who are at higher risk for body dissatisfaction, disordered eating, and eating disorders. Although athletic participation can generally protect against negative mental and physical health outcomes, idealization of a body ideal specific to ballet can confer unique vulnerability for eating pathology. Despite this known vulnerability, rigorous efforts to prevent eating pathology among young dancers are lacking. Previously, we reported on a trial of the Female Athlete Body Project adapted for professional female ballet dancers. The current study tested a subsequent adaptation, the Athlete Body Project (ABP), tailored for younger dancers, including a version for boys. This non-randomized, uncontrolled pilot trial tested ABP among boys and girls in two elite ballet schools (N = 23), formatted in-person and via video-conferencing. Program delivery met benchmarks for feasibility and acceptability across gender and delivery formats, and dancers provided positive qualitative feedback. Overall results suggest the potential of ABP in intervening on pre-post eating pathology and body appreciation, and significantly decreasing drive for muscularity among young ballet dancers. Taken together, this pilot work addresses a gap in the field and advances the needed development of eating disorder prevention programming for young, high-risk aesthetic athletes.

Psychometric properties of an Arabic translation of the short 9-item drive for muscularity scale (DMS-9)

BACKGROUND

After the original 15-item Drive for Muscularity Scale developed by McCreary et al. in 2004, a more theoretically based scale that replicates the original DMS subscales with a better conceptual clarity and a shorter number of items, i.e., the DMS-9, has recently been developed by Chaba et al. in 2018. We sought to contribute to the literature especially under the Arab context, by investigating the psychometric properties of an Arabic translation of the DMS-9 in a sample of Arabic-speaking Lebanese university students of both genders.

METHODS

University students (N = 402; 55.2% females) from multiple universities in Lebanon were invited to fill the survey in this cross-sectional designed study (December 2022 and January 2023). Our sample was chosen using the snowball technique; a soft copy of the questionnaire was created using google forms software, and an online approach was conceived to proceed with the data collection.

RESULTS

Using an Exploratory Factor Analysis-to- Confirmatory Factor Analysis strategy, we found that the original two-factor model of the DMS proposed in the parent study was adequately replicated in our sample. The two DMS-9 factor scores showed very good McDonald's omega values (ω > 0.8). Findings also showed that gender invariance was achieved at the configural, metric, and scalar levels. Additionally, drive for muscularity scores correlated in the expected way with other study variables, providing support for the convergent and divergent validity of the Arabic DMS-9. Specifically, we found that greater drive for muscularity attitudes and behaviors significantly correlated with more severe muscle dysmorphic symptoms, inappropriate eating attitudes, muscle bias internalization, and lower body appreciation.

CONCLUSION

Findings preliminarily suggest that the Arabic DMS-9 is psychometrically sound and suitable tool to assess the drive for muscularity construct among Arabic-speaking community adults. Making the Arabic DMS-9 available will hopefully benefit the scientific community working in Arab settings, promote local and international research in this area, and offer descriptive data on how drive for muscularity may interfere with health indicators in the general Arab population.

The Somatomorphic Matrix-Female: More evidence for the validity of bidimensional figural rating scales for women

Our study aimed to develop and provide a preliminary psychometric validation of the Somatomorphic Matrix-Female (SM-F), a new bidimensional female figural rating scale which can be used to gauge actual and desired levels of both body fat and muscularity in a consolidated measure, as well as providing an index of actual-desired body discrepancy based on these measures. Across two studies undergraduate women (n Study 1 = 481; n Study 2 = 391) completed the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire, the Body Shape Questionnaire-34, and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21 (Study 1) and the Drive for Thinness Scale and the Drive for Muscularity Scale (Study 2), as well as the SM-F. Overall, the SM-F demonstrated sound content, concurrent, and convergent validity for actual and desired body fat, actual and desired muscularity, and their respective discrepancy scores.

Psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the Female Muscularity Scale among Chinese young women

PURPOSE

The Female Muscularity Scale (FMS) was specifically developed for assessing drive for muscularity in women. The current study aimed to translate the FMS into Chinese (FMS-C) and examine its psychometric properties among Chinese young women.

METHODS

Based on standard procedures, the FMS was translated into Chinese. By using the psych and lavaan packages on R version 4.0.3, the current study examined the factor structure, reliability, and convergent and incremental validity of the FMS-C with a sample of 517 Chinese women college students ([Formula: see text]= 18.86 years).

RESULTS

Results showed a 2-factor structure including attitudes and behaviors of the FMS-C. The internal consistency reliability (Cronbach's α) was .91 for the total FMS-C scale and .89 and .88 for the Attitudes and Behaviors subscales, respectively. Results also revealed evidence for good convergent and incremental validity of the FMS-C.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that the FMS-C can be a useful tool to measure both attitudes and behaviors underlying drive for muscularity and muscle tone concerns among Chinese young women.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level V, cross-sectional descriptive study.

Confirmatory Factor and Measurement Invariance Analyses of the Drive for Muscularity Scale in Sexual Minority Men and Women

The Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS) is a commonly used measure used to assess the pursuit of muscularity. However, the factor structure of this measure has yet to be confirmed in a sample of sexual minority women. Moreover, the invariance of this measure across gender has also yet to be explored. The aim of the present study was, therefore, to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the DMS in samples of both cisgender sexual minority men and women, and subsequently evaluate the measurement invariance by gender. The sample consisted of 962 cisgender sexual minority young adult men (N = 479) and women (N = 483). A series of CFAs were conducted, assessing both the one-factor and two-factor solutions of the DMS, with and without the inclusion of item 10 ("I think about taking anabolic steroids"). Across cisgender sexual minority young adult men and women, the 14-item two-factor solution demonstrated most appropriate fit, although the 15-item two-factor solution was also adequate among only women. Measurement invariance analyses indicated that the 14-item two-factor DMS can be used in samples of both cisgender sexual minority men and women. The present study was novel in exploring the factor structure of the DMS in sexual minority women and measurement invariance by gender; however, future research is needed to further corroborate these findings and assess measurement invariance by sexual orientation and race.

Validation of the Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory (MDDI) in Brazilian Women

Despite high levels of body dissatisfaction and an increasing drive for muscularity among Brazilian women, most of the existing literature on muscle dysmorphia focuses on men and has mainly been conducted in Western and English-speaking regions. As a result, one of the most widely used assessment tools for symptoms of the disorder, the Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory (MDDI), has not yet been evaluated in Brazilian women-an at-risk population. In the present study, we perform a psychometric evaluation of the Brazilian Portuguese translation of the MDDI in a sample of 515 women. We evaluated the factor structure using a two-step, split-sample exploratory and confirmatory factor analytic approach, which supported the original three-factor structure of the measure. Additionally, we found good internal consistency, convergent validity, and test-retest reliability of the measure. Collectively, these results support the use of the measure in Brazilian women and provide a foundation to expand the literature in this population.

Validation and measurement invariance of the muscularity-oriented eating test among Brazilian men and women

OBJECTIVE

The Muscularity-Oriented Eating Test (MOET) is a 15-item unidimensional scale, designed to assess eating practices that occur in the pursuit of a muscular body. The aim of the present study was to describe the translation and cultural adaptation of the MOET to Brazilian Portuguese, to explore its factor structure and measurement invariance, and to evaluate its internal consistency, three-week test-retest reliability, and convergent validity in a community sample of Brazilian men and women.

METHOD

After the back-translation procedure, the Brazilian MOET was administered online to a sample of 1246 adults (634 men and 612 women), along with measures of drive for muscularity, muscle dysmorphia symptoms, muscular/athletic-ideal internalization, disordered eating behaviors, and exercise dependence.

RESULTS

Findings from an exploratory factor analysis and a confirmatory factor analysis revealed a one-factor structure and adequate internal consistency for men (ω = 0.86; α = 0.86) and women (ω = .84; α = .83). Measurement invariance across gender was supported. In addition, the scale demonstrated good three week test-retest reliability for both men (ICC = .96; p < .001) and women (ICC = .92; p < .001), and the subscales revealed moderate to large associations with drive for muscularity, muscle dysmorphia symptoms, muscular/athletic-ideal internalization, disordered eating, and exercise dependence.

CONCLUSION

This study supports the validity and reliability of the MOET in a community sample of Brazilian men and women and represents an advance in measures of muscularity-oriented disordered eating in Brazilian adults, allowing for future cross-cultural studies in this field.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE

The Muscularity-Oriented Eating Test (MOET) is a measure of muscularity-oriented disordered eating, which assess strict adherence to diet rules, including the food's macronutrient content, regulation of protein intake, and eating less or more to influence muscle gain. This study evaluated the validity and reliability of the MOET in a community sample of Brazilian men and women. Our findings represent an advance in measures of muscularity-oriented disordered eating in Brazilian adults.

Disordered eating behaviors among CrossFit athletes

ABSTRACT Objective: Evaluate differences in disordered eating symptoms between men and women who practice CrossFit and to evaluate its predictors in this population. Methods: A cross-sectional study (April to June 2019) was carried out with 194 adults (103 women and 91 men) enrolled in private CrossFit boxes in Brazil, with a mean age of 30.19 years (SD = 5.34). Participants answered a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Eating Attitudes Test-26 (disordered eating), the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-3 (body-ideal internalization), and the Drive for Muscularity Scale (drive for muscularity). A series of Student's t-tests was applied to test differences in disordered eating symptoms between men and women. Multiple linear regressions were conducted to evaluate predictors of disordered eating for both sexes. Results: Women showed greater disordered eating symptoms, dietary restrictions and excessive concern about thinness than men. Moreover, younger women with a higher BMI are more likely to have disordered eating symptoms. Higher drive for muscularity and greater general body-ideal internalization were also associated with disordered eating among women. In men, muscularity-oriented behavior was the only predictor of disordered eating. Conclusion: These findings are relevant, as they point out that women who practice CrossFit seem to be a high risk group for the development of eating disorders. In addition, muscularity-oriented behaviors in men and the drive for muscularity, internalization of the ideal body, BMI and age in women are predictors of disordered eating in CrossFit practitioners.

Body Figure Idealization and Body Appearance Pressure in Fitness Instructors

PURPOSE

The fitness centers are settings for health promotion, yet may serve as a stage for counterproductive figure idealization. Such idealization may take the form of a drive toward the thin, the muscular, or lean body figure ideal, which all hold the potential to impel an experience of body appearance pressure (BAP) and body dissatisfaction. The aim of this study was to explore figure idealization, body dissatisfaction, and experience of BAP in fitness instructors.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fitness instructors, 70 (23%) males and 236 (77%) females, were recruited through their facility chief executive officer and social media for a digital survey on mental health. Results are presented for body appreciation (BAS-2), body dissatisfaction (EDI-BD), drive for muscularity (DM), drive for leanness (DLS), questions on BAP, symptoms of eating disorders (EDE-q), and history of weight regulation and eating disorders (EDs).

RESULTS

Attempts to gain body weight were reported by 17% of females and 53% of males, whereas ∼76% of males and females, respectively, reported to have attempted weight reduction. Reasons for body weight manipulation were predominantly appearance related, and 10-20% reported disordered eating behavior. Mean BAS-2 and EDI-BD were acceptable, but 28% of females were above clinical cutoff in EDI-BD, and mean DLS were high in both sexes. In total, 8% of females were above clinical cutoff in EDE-q, which corresponded well with the self-reported ED. Approximately 90% of the sample perceived BAP to be a societal issue and reported predominantly customers and colleagues to be the cause of their personal experience of BAP. Fewer than 50% knew of any actions taken by their employer to reduce BAP. There were few differences according to profession or educational level.

CONCLUSION

Fitness instructors report BAP to affect them negatively, which may put them at risk of impaired mental health. Educational level did not protect against figure idealization and BAP. To care for their employees and to optimize their position as a public health promoter, the fitness industry should target BAP in health promotion programs.

Sociocultural Influences, Drive for Thinness, Drive for Muscularity, and Body Dissatisfaction among Korean Undergraduates

For many years, body dissatisfaction was considered a western phenomenon, and was studied mostly in Caucasian women. Recent studies, however, suggest that these issues are also present in men and in other ethnic groups. This research investigated the differential effects of various sociocultural pressures transmitted from the media, one’s parents, and one’s peers on the drives for thinness and muscularity, and body dissatisfaction among 1125 Korean college students (56% male) using structural equation modeling. The results indicate that, after controlling for body mass index and exercise, media pressures exerted the largest effects on participants’ body ideals and, in turn, body dissatisfaction across both genders (β = 0.44, and 0.30, p < 0.05, for females and males, respectively). This study’s results also indicate that there are considerable gender differences in this relationship. Specifically, the results show that parental and media pressure had significant indirect relationships with body dissatisfaction via the drive for thinness among females, while peer and media pressures had significant indirect relationships with body dissatisfaction via the drive for muscularity among males. As body dissatisfaction is known to significantly affect an individual’s mental and physical health, future research needs to identify relevant influential factors in this area, as well as the paths they have leading to increased body dissatisfaction.

Development and validation of new figural scales for female body dissatisfaction assessment on two dimensions: thin-ideal and muscularity-ideal

Background

Body dissatisfaction influences women’s mental and physical health. To date, most research has focused on body dissatisfaction in relation to the ‘thin-ideal’. Thus, the association between body dissatisfaction, eating disorder symptomatology and muscularity-ideal in women is less clear. Lack of understanding is underpinned by the lack of reliable and valid muscularity-related assessments for women. To address this need, we developed, tested and re-tested two new body dissatisfaction scales: The Female Body Scale (FBS; adiposity dimension) and Female Fit Body Scale (FFITBS; muscularity dimension).

Methods

One hundred and fifty-two women in the United Kingdom rated which body figure best represented their current and ideal body, completed the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q 6.0), and their body composition was measured. During re-test, the EDE-Q 6.0 and Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS) were completed.

Results

Both the FBS and the FFITBS were found to be valid and reliable, and distinct types of body dissatisfaction were identified. Higher EDE-Q scores corresponded with greater body dissatisfaction scores on both the FBS and FFITBS. Thin-ideal (FBS) and larger/muscularity-ideal (FFITBS) body dissatisfaction predicted higher scores on the DMS. The muscularity scale (FFITBS) uniquely revealed that 28% of participants indicated body dissatisfaction toward the larger-muscularity-ideal.

Conclusions

Results reveal distinct dimensions of body dissatisfaction. These new, validated scales may be utilized to quickly identify eating disorder risk in women as a preventative assessment for clinicians and inform female-focused body-image and eating disorder research.