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Kralick AE, O'Connell CA, Bastian ML, Hoke MK, Zemel BS, Schurr TG, Tocheri MW. Beyond Dimorphism: Body Size Variation Among Adult Orangutans Is Not Dichotomous by Sex. Integr Comp Biol 2023; 63:907-921. [PMID: 37061788 PMCID: PMC10563650 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icad015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Among extant great apes, orangutans are considered the most sexually dimorphic in body size. However, the expression of sexual dimorphism in orangutans is more complex than simply males being larger than females. At sexual maturity, some male orangutans develop cheek pads (flanges), while other males remain unflanged even after becoming reproductively capable. Sometimes flange development is delayed in otherwise sexually mature males for a few years. In other cases, flange development is delayed for many years or decades, with some males even spending their entire lifespan as unflanged adults. Thus, unflanged males of various chronological ages can be mistakenly identified as "subadults." Unflanged adult males are typically described as "female-sized," but this may simply reflect the fact that unflanged male body size has only ever been measured in peri-pubescent individuals. In this study, we measured the skeletons of 111 wild adult orangutans (Pongo spp.), including 20 unflanged males, 45 flanged males, and 46 females, resulting in the largest skeletal sample of unflanged males yet studied. We assessed long bone lengths (as a proxy for stature) for all 111 individuals and recorded weights-at-death, femoral head diameters, bi-iliac breadths, and long bone cross-sectional areas (CSA) (as proxies for mass) for 27 of these individuals, including seven flanged males, three adult confirmed-unflanged males, and three young adult likely-unflanged males. ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis tests with Tukey and Dunn post-hoc pairwise comparisons, respectively, showed that body sizes for young adult unflanged males are similar to those of the adult females in the sample (all P ≥ 0.09 except bi-iliac breadth), whereas body sizes for adult unflanged males ranged between those of adult flanged males and adult females for several measurements (all P < 0.001). Thus, sexually mature male orangutans exhibit body sizes that range from the female end of the spectrum to the flanged male end of the spectrum. These results exemplify that the term "sexual dimorphism" fails to capture the full range of variation in adult orangutan body size. By including adult unflanged males in analyses of body size and other aspects of morphology, not as aberrations but as an expected part of orangutan variation, we may begin to shift the way that we think about features typically considered dichotomous according to biological sex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra E Kralick
- Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Caitlin A O'Connell
- Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Department of Anthropology, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
| | - Meredith L Bastian
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC 20001, USA
| | - Morgan K Hoke
- Department of Anthropology & Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Babette S Zemel
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- , Department of Pediatrics, The University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Theodore G Schurr
- Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Matthew W Tocheri
- Department of Anthropology, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, ON P7B 5E1, Canada
- Human Origins Program, Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013, USA
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage, University of Wollongong, Wollongong NSW 2522, Australia
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Steffensmeier AM, Lamont SM, Metoyer G, DiPaolo Z, Froehle AW. Relationship Between Age at Adult Height and Knee Mechanics During a Drop Vertical Jump in Men. Orthop J Sports Med 2020; 8:2325967120944912. [PMID: 32874998 PMCID: PMC7436829 DOI: 10.1177/2325967120944912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries are relatively common among younger athletes, with significant physical, psychological, and financial consequences. Research has largely focused on female athletes by identifying specific risk factors for an ACL injury, including variation in pubertal growth timing. There is less known about risk factors in males, and little is known about the effects of pubertal development on ACL injury risk in men. Purpose/Hypothesis: The purpose of this study was to analyze the relationship between an indicator of pubertal growth timing (age at adult height) and biomechanical risk for ACL injuries in men. We hypothesized that earlier age at adult height is correlated with riskier landing biomechanics during a drop vertical jump (DVJ) in men. Study Design: Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: A total of 21 recreationally active male students (age range, 20-33 years) were included. Participants completed a questionnaire on age at adult height and limb dominance, and anthropometric measurements were taken. There were 6 DVJ tests performed, with participants landing on a force plate while digital cameras recorded kinematic data from retroreflective markers placed according to the Helen Hayes marker system. Primary outcomes were sagittal and frontal plane knee kinematics and kinetics during contact. Data were analyzed using Pearson product-moment correlation. Results: In both limbs, age at achieving adult height was significantly negatively correlated with knee flexion/extension angle at toe-off (dominant: r = –0.79, P < .01; nondominant: r = –0.74, P < .01) and with peak flexion (dominant: r = –0.63, P < .01; nondominant: r = –0.70, P < .01) and extension (dominant: r = –0.66, P < .01; nondominant: r = –0.56, P = .01) angles during contact. In the nondominant limb, age at adult height was significantly negatively correlated with varus/valgus angle at initial contact (r = –0.43; P = .05) and toe-off (r = –0.44; P = .04) and was positively correlated with peak varus moment during contact (r = 0.42; P = .06). Age at adult height was also positively correlated with peak vertical ground-reaction force (r = 0.58; P < .01). Conclusion: Later age at adult height was correlated with riskier landing profiles in this study. This suggests that males with later or longer pubertal growth may have increased mechanical risk for ACL injuries. A better understanding of the effects of pubertal growth on landing biomechanics can improve the early identification of male athletes at greater risk for injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew M Steffensmeier
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Sarah M Lamont
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Garyn Metoyer
- Boonshoft School of Medicine, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio, USA
| | | | - Andrew W Froehle
- Departments of Kinesiology and Health and Orthopaedic and Plastic Surgery, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio, USA
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Higgins S, Sokolowski CM, Vishwanathan M, Schmidt MD, Evans EM, Lewis RD. Sex-Specific Muscular Mediation of the Relationship Between Physical Activity and Cortical Bone in Young Adults. J Bone Miner Res 2020; 35:81-91. [PMID: 31499590 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.3868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Muscle mass is a commonly cited mediator of the relationship between physical activity (PA) and bone, representing the mechanical forces generated during PA. However, neuromuscular properties (eg, peak force) also account for unique portions of variance in skeletal outcomes. We used serial multiple mediation to explore the intermediary role of muscle mass and force in the relationships between cortical bone and moderate-to-vigorous intensity PA (MVPA). In a cross-sectional sample of young adults (n = 147, 19.7 ± 0.7 years old, 52.4% female) cortical diaphyseal bone was assessed via peripheral quantitative computed tomography at the mid-tibia. Peak isokinetic torque in knee extension was assessed via Biodex dynamometer. Thigh fat-free soft tissue (FFST) mass, assessed via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, represented the muscular aspect of tibial mechanical forces. Habitual MVPA was assessed objectively over 7 days using Actigraph GT3X+ accelerometers. Participants exceeded MVPA guidelines (89.14 ± 27.29 min/day), with males performing 44.5% more vigorous-intensity activity relative to females (p < 0.05). Males had greater knee extension torque and thigh FFST mass compared to females (55.3%, and 34.2%, respectively, all p < 0.05). In combined-sex models, controlling for tibia length and age, MVPA was associated with strength strain index (pSSI) through two indirect pathways: (i) thigh FFST mass (b = 1.11 ± 0.37; 95% CI, 0.47 to 1.93), and (i) thigh FFST mass and knee extensor torque in sequence (b = 0.30 ± 0.16; 95% CI, 0.09 to 0.73). However, in sex-specific models MVPA was associated with pSSI indirectly through its relationship with knee extensor torque in males (b = 0.78 ± 0.48; 95% CI, 0.04 to 2.02) and thigh FFST mass in females (b = 1.12 ± 0.50; 95% CI, 0.37 to 2.46). Bootstrapped CIs confirmed these mediation pathways. The relationship between MVPA and cortical structure appears to be mediated by muscle in young adults, with potential sex-differences in the muscular pathway. If confirmed, these findings may highlight novel avenues for the promotion of bone strength in young adults. © 2019 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Higgins
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Department of Exercise Science, Elon University, Elon, NC, USA
| | | | | | | | - Ellen M Evans
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Richard D Lewis
- Department of Foods and Nutrition, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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Corre C, Shinoda G, Zhu H, Cousminer DL, Crossman C, Bellissimo C, Goldenberg A, Daley GQ, Palmert MR. Sex-specific regulation of weight and puberty by the Lin28/let-7 axis. J Endocrinol 2016; 228:179-91. [PMID: 26698568 PMCID: PMC4772724 DOI: 10.1530/joe-15-0360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Growth and pubertal timing differ in boys and girls. Variants in/near LIN28B associate with age at menarche (AAM) in genome-wide association studies and some AAM-related variants associate with growth in a sex-specific manner. Sex-specific growth patterns in response to Lin28b perturbation have been detected in mice, and overexpression of Lin28a has been shown to alter pubertal timing in female mice. To investigate further how Lin28a and Lin28b affect growth and puberty in both males and females, we evaluated Lin28b loss-of-function (LOF) mice and Lin28a gain-of-function (GOF) mice. Because both Lin28a and Lin28b can act via the conserved microRNA let-7, we also examined let-7 GOF mice. As reported previously, Lin28b LOF led to lighter body weights only in male mice while Lin28a GOF yielded heavier mice of both sexes. Let-7 GOF mice weighed less than controls, and males were more affected than females. Timing of puberty was assessed by vaginal opening (VO) and preputial separation (PS). Male Lin28b LOF and male let-7 GOF, but not female, mice displayed alteration of pubertal timing, with later PS than controls. In contrast, both male and female Lin28a GOF mice displayed late onset of puberty. Together, these data point toward a complex system of regulation by Lin28a, Lin28b, and let-7, in which Lin28b and let-7 can impact both puberty and growth in a sex-specific manner, raising the possibility that this pathway may contribute to differential regulation of male and female growth and puberty in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Corre
- Division of EndocrinologyThe Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto ON, M5G 1X8, CanadaDivision of Hematology/OncologyBoston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USADepartments of Pediatrics and Internal MedicineChildren's Research Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USAInstitute for Molecular MedicineFinland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FinlandGenetics and Genome Biology ProgramThe Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartment of Computer ScienceUniversity of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartments of Paediatrics and PhysiologyThe University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Gen Shinoda
- Division of EndocrinologyThe Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto ON, M5G 1X8, CanadaDivision of Hematology/OncologyBoston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USADepartments of Pediatrics and Internal MedicineChildren's Research Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USAInstitute for Molecular MedicineFinland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FinlandGenetics and Genome Biology ProgramThe Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartment of Computer ScienceUniversity of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartments of Paediatrics and PhysiologyThe University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hao Zhu
- Division of EndocrinologyThe Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto ON, M5G 1X8, CanadaDivision of Hematology/OncologyBoston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USADepartments of Pediatrics and Internal MedicineChildren's Research Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USAInstitute for Molecular MedicineFinland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FinlandGenetics and Genome Biology ProgramThe Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartment of Computer ScienceUniversity of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartments of Paediatrics and PhysiologyThe University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Diana L Cousminer
- Division of EndocrinologyThe Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto ON, M5G 1X8, CanadaDivision of Hematology/OncologyBoston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USADepartments of Pediatrics and Internal MedicineChildren's Research Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USAInstitute for Molecular MedicineFinland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FinlandGenetics and Genome Biology ProgramThe Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartment of Computer ScienceUniversity of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartments of Paediatrics and PhysiologyThe University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Division of EndocrinologyThe Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto ON, M5G 1X8, CanadaDivision of Hematology/OncologyBoston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USADepartments of Pediatrics and Internal MedicineChildren's Research Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USAInstitute for Molecular MedicineFinland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FinlandGenetics and Genome Biology ProgramThe Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartment of Computer ScienceUniversity of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartments of Paediatrics and PhysiologyThe University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Christine Crossman
- Division of EndocrinologyThe Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto ON, M5G 1X8, CanadaDivision of Hematology/OncologyBoston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USADepartments of Pediatrics and Internal MedicineChildren's Research Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USAInstitute for Molecular MedicineFinland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FinlandGenetics and Genome Biology ProgramThe Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartment of Computer ScienceUniversity of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartments of Paediatrics and PhysiologyThe University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Christian Bellissimo
- Division of EndocrinologyThe Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto ON, M5G 1X8, CanadaDivision of Hematology/OncologyBoston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USADepartments of Pediatrics and Internal MedicineChildren's Research Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USAInstitute for Molecular MedicineFinland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FinlandGenetics and Genome Biology ProgramThe Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartment of Computer ScienceUniversity of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartments of Paediatrics and PhysiologyThe University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Anna Goldenberg
- Division of EndocrinologyThe Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto ON, M5G 1X8, CanadaDivision of Hematology/OncologyBoston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USADepartments of Pediatrics and Internal MedicineChildren's Research Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USAInstitute for Molecular MedicineFinland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FinlandGenetics and Genome Biology ProgramThe Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartment of Computer ScienceUniversity of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartments of Paediatrics and PhysiologyThe University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Division of EndocrinologyThe Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto ON, M5G 1X8, CanadaDivision of Hematology/OncologyBoston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USADepartments of Pediatrics and Internal MedicineChildren's Research Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USAInstitute for Molecular MedicineFinland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FinlandGenetics and Genome Biology ProgramThe Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartment of Computer ScienceUniversity of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartments of Paediatrics and PhysiologyThe University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - George Q Daley
- Division of EndocrinologyThe Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto ON, M5G 1X8, CanadaDivision of Hematology/OncologyBoston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USADepartments of Pediatrics and Internal MedicineChildren's Research Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USAInstitute for Molecular MedicineFinland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FinlandGenetics and Genome Biology ProgramThe Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartment of Computer ScienceUniversity of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartments of Paediatrics and PhysiologyThe University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mark R Palmert
- Division of EndocrinologyThe Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto ON, M5G 1X8, CanadaDivision of Hematology/OncologyBoston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USADepartments of Pediatrics and Internal MedicineChildren's Research Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USAInstitute for Molecular MedicineFinland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FinlandGenetics and Genome Biology ProgramThe Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartment of Computer ScienceUniversity of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartments of Paediatrics and PhysiologyThe University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Division of EndocrinologyThe Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto ON, M5G 1X8, CanadaDivision of Hematology/OncologyBoston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USADepartments of Pediatrics and Internal MedicineChildren's Research Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USAInstitute for Molecular MedicineFinland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FinlandGenetics and Genome Biology ProgramThe Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartment of Computer ScienceUniversity of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaDepartments of Paediatrics and PhysiologyThe University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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