Material properties of lipid microdomains: force-volume imaging study of the effect of cholesterol on lipid microdomain rigidity

Liposome bilayer stability: emphasis on cholesterol and its alternatives

Liposomes are spherical lipidic nanocarriers composed of natural or synthetic phospholipids with a hydrophobic bilayer and aqueous core, which are arranged into a polar head and a long hydrophobic tail, forming an amphipathic nano/micro-particle. Despite numerous liposomal applications, their use encounters many challenges related to the physicochemical properties strongly affected by their constituents, colloidal stability, and interactions with the biological environment. This review aims to provide a perspective and a clear idea about the main factors that regulate the liposomes' colloidal and bilayer stability, emphasising the roles of cholesterol and its possible alternatives. Moreover, this review will analyse strategies that offer possible approaches to provide more stable in vitro and in vivo liposomes with enhanced drug release and encapsulation efficiencies.

Structural diversity of photoswitchable sphingolipids for optodynamic control of lipid microdomains

Sphingolipids are a structurally diverse class of lipids predominantly found in the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells. These lipids can laterally segregate with other rigid lipids and cholesterol into liquid-ordered domains that act as organizing centers within biomembranes. Owing the vital role of sphingolipids for lipid segregation, controlling their lateral organization is of utmost significance. Hence, we made use of the light-induced trans-cis isomerization of azobenzene-modified acyl chains to develop a set of photoswitchable sphingolipids with different headgroups (hydroxyl, galactosyl, phosphocholine) and backbones (sphingosine, phytosphingosine, tetrahydropyran-blocked sphingosine) that are able to shuttle between liquid-ordered and liquid-disordered regions of model membranes upon irradiation with UV-A (λ = 365 nm) and blue (λ = 470 nm) light, respectively. Using combined high-speed atomic force microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, and force spectroscopy, we investigated how these active sphingolipids laterally remodel supported bilayers upon photoisomerization, notably in terms of domain area changes, height mismatch, line tension, and membrane piercing. Hereby, we show that the sphingosine-based (Azo-β-Gal-Cer, Azo-SM, Azo-Cer) and phytosphingosine-based (Azo-α-Gal-PhCer, Azo-PhCer) photoswitchable lipids promote a reduction in liquid-ordered microdomain area when in the UV-adapted cis-isoform. In contrast, azo-sphingolipids having tetrahydropyran groups that block H-bonding at the sphingosine backbone (lipids named Azo-THP-SM, Azo-THP-Cer) induce an increase in the liquid-ordered domain area when in cis, accompanied by a major rise in height mismatch and line tension. These changes were fully reversible upon blue light-triggered isomerization of the various lipids back to trans, pinpointing the role of interfacial interactions for the formation of stable liquid-ordered domains.

Membrane elasticity modulated by cholesterol in model of porcine eye lens-lipid membrane

Experimental evidence shows that the eye lens loses its elasticity dramatically with age. It has also been reported that the cholesterol (Chol) content in the eye lens fiber cell plasma membrane increases significantly with age. High Chol content leads to the formation of cholesterol bilayer domains (CBDs) in the lens membrane. The role of high Chol associated with lens elasticity is unclear. The purpose of this research is to investigate the membrane elasticity of the model of porcine lens-lipid (MPLL) membrane with increasing Chol content to elucidate the role of high Chol in lens membrane elasticity. In this study, we used atomic force microscopy (AFM) to study the mechanical properties (breakthrough force and area compressibility modulus (K_A)) of the MPLL membrane with increasing Chol content where K_A is the measure of membrane elasticity. We varied Chol concentration in Chol/MPLL membrane from 0 to ∼71 mol%. Supported Chol/MPLL membranes were prepared by fusion of small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs) on top of a flat mica surface. SUVs of the Chol/MPLL lipid mixture were prepared with the rapid solvent exchange method followed by probe-tip sonication. For the Chol/MPLL mixing ratio of 0, AFM image showed the formation of two distinct phases of the membrane, i.e., liquid-disordered phase (l_d) and solid-ordered phase (s_o) membrane. However, with Chol/MPLL mixing ratio of 0.5 and above, only liquid-ordered phase (l_o) membrane was formed. Also, two distinct breakthrough forces corresponding to l_d and s_o were observed for Chol/MPLL mixing ratio of 0, whereas only one breakthrough force was observed for membranes with Chol/MPLL mixing ratio of 0.5 and above. No significant difference in the membrane surface roughness was measured with increasing Chol content for these membranes; however, breakthrough force and K_A for l_o membrane increased when Chol/MPLL mixing ratio was increased from 0.5 to 1. Interestingly above the Chol/MPLL mixing ratio of 1, both breakthrough force and K_A decreased, indicating the formation of CBDs. Furthermore, these results showed that membrane elasticity increases at high Chol content, suggesting that high Chol content in lens membrane might be responsible for maintaining lens membrane elasticity.

Imaging and quantifying analysis the binding behavior of PD-L1 at molecular resolution by atomic force microscopy

Immunotherapy has emerged as an effective treatment modality for cancer. The interaction of programmed cell death ligand-1 (PD-L1) and programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1) plays a key role in tumor-related immune escape and has become one of the most extensive targets for immunotherapy. Herein, we investigated the interaction of PD-L1 with its antibody and PD-1 using atomic force microscopy-based single molecule force spectroscopy for the first time. It was found that the PD-L1/anti-PD-L1 antibody complex was easier to dissociate than PD-L1/PD-1. The unbinding forces of specific interaction of PD-L1 on T24 cells with its antibody and PD-1 were quantitatively measured and similar to those on substrate. In addition, the location of PD-L1 on T24 cells was mapped at the single-molecule level by force-volume mapping. The force maps revealed that PD-L1 randomly distributed on T24 cells surface. The recognition events on cells obviously increased after INF-γ treatment, which proved that INF-γ up-regulated the expression of PD-L1 on T24 cells. These findings enrich our understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which PD-L1 interacts with its antibody and PD-1. It provides useful information for the physical factors that is needed to be considered in the design of inhibitors for tumor immunology.

Design and use of model membranes to study biomolecular interactions using complementary surface-sensitive techniques

Cellular membranes are complex structures and simplified analogues in the form of model membranes or biomembranes are used as platforms to understand fundamental properties of the membrane itself as well as interactions with various biomolecules such as drugs, peptides and proteins. Model membranes at the air-liquid and solid-liquid interfaces can be studied using a range of complementary surface-sensitive techniques to give a detailed picture of both the structure and physicochemical properties of the membrane and its resulting interactions. In this review, we will present the main planar model membranes used in the field to date with a focus on monolayers at the air-liquid interface, supported lipid bilayers at the solid-liquid interface and advanced membrane models such as tethered and floating membranes. We will then briefly present the principles as well as the main type of information on molecular interactions at model membranes accessible using a Langmuir trough, quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring, ellipsometry, atomic force microscopy, Brewster angle microscopy, Infrared spectroscopy, and neutron and X-ray reflectometry. A consistent example for following biomolecular interactions at model membranes is used across many of the techniques in terms of the well-studied antimicrobial peptide Melittin. The overall objective is to establish an understanding of the information accessible from each technique, their respective advantages and limitations, and their complementarity.

Cholesterol-tuned liposomal membrane rigidity directs tumor penetration and anti-tumor effect

Recently, liposomes have been widely used in cancer therapeutics, but their anti-tumor effects are suboptimal due to limited tumor penetration. To solve this problem, researchers have made significant efforts to optimize liposomal diameters and potentials, but little attention has been paid to liposomal membrane rigidity. Herein, we sought to demonstrate the effects of cholesterol-tuned liposomal membrane rigidity on tumor penetration and anti-tumor effects. In this study, liposomes composed of hydrogenated soybean phospholipids (HSPC), 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(polyethylene glycol)-2000] (DSPE-PEG₂₀₀₀) and different concentrations of cholesterol were prepared. It was revealed that liposomal membrane rigidity decreased with the addition of cholesterol. Moderate cholesterol content conferred excellent diffusivity to liposomes in simulated diffusion medium, while excessive cholesterol limited the diffusion process. We concluded that the differences of the diffusion rates likely stemmed from the alterations in liposomal membrane rigidity, with moderate rigidity leading to improved diffusion. Next, the in vitro tumor penetration and the in vivo anti-tumor effects were analyzed. The results showed that liposomes with moderate rigidity gained excellent tumor penetration and enhanced anti-tumor effects. These findings illustrate a feasible and effective way to improve tumor penetration and therapeutic efficacy of liposomes by changing the cholesterol content, and highlight the importance of liposomal membrane rigidity.

Mechanism of local anesthetic-induced disruption of raft-like ordered membrane domains

BACKGROUND

Because ordered membrane domains, called lipid rafts, regulate activation of ion channels related to the nerve pulse, lipids rafts are thought to be a possible target for anesthetic molecules. To understand the mechanism of anesthetic action, we examined influence of representative local anesthetics (LAs); dibucaine, tetracaine, and lidocaine, on raft-like liquid-ordered (L_o)/non-raft-like liquid-disordered (L_d) phase separation.

METHODS

Impact of LAs on the phase separation was observed by fluorescent microscopy. LA-induced perturbation of the L_o and L_d membranes was examined by DPH anisotropy measurements. Incorporation of LAs to the membranes was examined by fluorescent anisotropy of LAs. The biding location of the LAs was indicated by small angle x-ray diffraction (SAXD).

RESULTS

Fluorescent experiments showed that dibucaine eliminated the phase separation the most effectively, followed by tetracaine and lidocaine. The disruption of the phase separation can be explained by their disordering effects on the L_o membrane. SAXD and other experiments further suggested that dibucaine's most potent perturbation of the L_o membrane is attributable to its deeper immersion and bulky molecular structure. Tetracaine, albeit immersed in the L_o membrane as deeply as dibucaine, less perturbs the L_o membrane probably because of its smaller bulkiness. Lidocaine hardly reaches the hydrophobic region, resulting in the weakest L_o membrane perturbation.

CONCLUSION

Dibcaine perturbs the L_o membrane the most effectively, followed by tetracaine and lidocaine. This ranking correlates with their anesthetic potency.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

This study suggests a possible mechanistic link between anesthetic action and perturbation of lipid rafts.

Role of ABCA1 on membrane cholesterol content, insulin-dependent Akt phosphorylation and glucose uptake in adult skeletal muscle fibers from mice

The ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) promotes cellular cholesterol efflux, leading to cholesterol binding to the extracellular lipid-free apolipoprotein A-I. ABCA1 regulates lipid content, glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in adipose tissue. In skeletal muscle, most GLUT4-mediated glucose transport occurs in the transverse tubule, a system composed by specialized cholesterol-enriched invaginations of the plasma membrane. We have reported that insulin resistant mice have higher cholesterol levels in transverse tubule from adult skeletal muscle. These high levels correlate with decreased GLUT4 trafficking and glucose uptake; however, the role of ABCA1 on skeletal muscle insulin-dependent glucose metabolism remains largely unexplored. Here, we evaluated the functional role of the ABCA1 on insulin-dependent signaling pathways, glucose uptake and cellular cholesterol content in adult skeletal muscle. Male mice were fed for 8 weeks with normal chow diet (NCD) or high fat diet (HFD). Compared to NCD-fed mice, ABCA1 mRNA levels and protein content were lower in muscle homogenates from HFD-fed mice. In Flexor digitorum brevis muscle from NCD-fed mice, shABCA1-RFP in vivo electroporation resulted in 65% reduction of ABCA1 protein content, 1.6-fold increased fiber cholesterol levels, 74% reduction in insulin-dependent Akt (Ser⁴⁷³) phosphorylation, total suppression of insulin-dependent GLUT4 translocation and decreased 2-NBDG uptake compared to fibers electroporated with the scrambled plasmid. Pre-incubation with methyl-β cyclodextrin reestablished both GLUT4 translocation and 2-NBDG transport. Based on the present results, we suggest that decreased ABCA1 contributes to the anomalous cholesterol accumulation and decreased glucose transport displayed by skeletal muscle membranes in the insulin resistant condition.

Membrane Cholesterol in Skeletal Muscle: A Novel Player in Excitation-Contraction Coupling and Insulin Resistance

Membrane cholesterol is critical for signaling processes in a variety of tissues. We will address here current evidence supporting an emerging role of cholesterol on excitation-contraction coupling and glucose transport in skeletal muscle. We have centered our review on the transverse tubule system, a complex network of narrow plasma membrane invaginations that propagate membrane depolarization into the fiber interior and allow nutrient delivery into the fibers. We will discuss current evidence showing that transverse tubule membranes have remarkably high cholesterol levels and we will address how modifications of cholesterol content influence excitation-contraction coupling. In addition, we will discuss how membrane cholesterol levels affect glucose transport by modulating the insertion into the membrane of the main insulin-sensitive glucose transporter GLUT4. Finally, we will address how the increased membrane cholesterol levels displayed by obese animals, which also present insulin resistance, affect these two particular skeletal muscle functions.

Cholesterol Decreases the Size and the Mechanical Resistance to Rupture of Sphingomyelin Rich Domains, in Lipid Bilayers Studied as a Model of the Milk Fat Globule Membrane

Sphingomyelin-rich microdomains have been observed in the biological membrane surrounding milk fat globules (MFGM). The role played by cholesterol in these domains and in the physical properties and functions of the MFGM remains poorly understood. The objective of this work was therefore to investigate the phase state, topography, and mechanical properties of MFGM polar lipid bilayers as a function of cholesterol concentration, by combining X-ray diffraction, atomic force microscopy imaging, and force spectroscopy. At room temperature, i.e. below the phase transition temperature of the MFGM polar lipids, the bilayers showed the formation of sphingomyelin-rich domains in the solid ordered (so) phase that protruded about 1 nm above the liquid disordered (ld) phase. These so phase domains have a higher mechanical resistance to rupture than the ld phase (30 nN versus 15 nN). Addition of cholesterol in the MFGM polar lipid bilayers (i) induced the formation of liquid ordered (lo) phase for up to 27 mol % in the bilayers, (ii) decreased the height difference between the thicker ordered domains and the surrounding ld phase, (iii) promoted the formation of small sized domains, and (iv) decreased the mechanical resistance to rupture of the sphingomyelin-rich domains down to ∼5 nN. The biological and functional relevance of the lo phase cholesterol/sphingomyelin-rich domains in the membrane surrounding fat globules in milk remains to be elucidated. This study brought new insight about the functional role of cholesterol in milk polar lipid ingredients, which can be used in the preparation of food emulsions, e.g. infant milk formulas.

Morphological and physical analysis of natural phospholipids-based biomembranes

Background

Liposomes are currently an important part of biological, pharmaceutical, medical and nutritional research, as they are considered to be among the most effective carriers for the introduction of various types of bioactive agents into target cells.

Scope of Review

In this work, we study the lipid organization and mechanical properties of biomembranes made of marine and plant phospholipids. Membranes based on phospholipids extracted from rapeseed and salmon are studied in the form of liposome and as supported lipid bilayer. Dioleylphosphatidylcholine (DOPC) and dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) are used as references to determine the lipid organization of marine and plant phospholipid based membranes. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging and force spectroscopy measurements are performed to investigate the membranes' topography at the micrometer scale and to determine their mechanical properties.

Major Conclusions

The mechanical properties of the membranes are correlated to the fatty acid composition, the morphology, the electrophoretic mobility and the membrane fluidity. Thus, soft and homogeneous mechanical properties are evidenced for salmon phospholipids membrane containing various polyunsaturated fatty acids. Besides, phase segregation in rapeseed membrane and more important mechanical properties were emphasized for this type of membranes by contrast to the marine phospholipids based membranes.

General Significance

This paper provides new information on the nanomechanical and morphological properties of membrane in form of liposome by AFM. The originality of this work is to characterize the physico-chemical properties of the nanoliposome from the natural sources containing various fatty acids and polar head.

Label-free characterization of biomembranes: from structure to dynamics

We review recent progress in the study of the structure and dynamics of phospholipid membranes and associated proteins, using novel label-free analytical tools. We describe these techniques and illustrate them with examples highlighting current capabilities and limitations. Recent advances in applying such techniques to biological and model membranes for biophysical studies and biosensing applications are presented, and future prospects are discussed.

HIV-1 antibodies and vaccine antigen selectively interact with lipid domains

The rare, broadly neutralizing antibodies, 4E10 and 2F5, that target the HIV-1 membrane proximal external region also associate with HIV-1 membrane lipids as part of a required first-step in HIV-1 neutralization. HIV-1 virions have high concentration of cholesterol and sphingomyelin, which are able to organize into liquid-ordered domains (i.e., lipid rafts), and could influence the interaction of neutralizing antibodies with epitopes proximal to the membrane. The objective of this research is to understand how these lipid domains contribute to 2F5/4E10 membrane interactions and to antigen presentation in liposomal form of HIV-1 vaccines. To this end we have engineered biomimetic supported lipid bilayers and are able to use atomic force microscopy to visualize membrane domains, antigen clustering, and antibody-membrane interactions. Our results demonstrate that 2F5/4E10 do not interact with highly ordered gel and liquid-ordered domains and exclusively bind to a liquid-disordered lipid phase. This suggests that vaccine liposomes that contain key viral membrane components, such as high cholesterol content, may not be advantageous for 2F5/4E10 vaccine strategies. Rather, vaccine liposomes that primarily contain a liquid-disordered phase may be more likely to elicit production of lipid reactive, 2F5- and 4E10-like antibodies.

Nanomechanical spectroscopy of synthetic and biological membranes

We report that atomic force microscopy based high-speed nanomechanical analysis can identify components of complex heterogeneous synthetic and biological membranes from the measured spectrum of nanomechanical properties. We have investigated phase separated ternary lipid bilayers and purple membranes of Halobacterium salinarum. The nanomechanical spectra recorded on these samples identify all membrane components, some of which are difficult to resolve in conventional phase images. This non-destructive approach can aid the design of synthetic lipid bilayers and studies lateral organization of complex heterogeneous cellular membranes.

Localizing chemical groups while imaging single native proteins by high-resolution atomic force microscopy

Simultaneous high-resolution imaging and localization of chemical interaction sites on single native proteins is a pertinent biophysical, biochemical, and nanotechnological challenge. Such structural mapping and characterization of binding sites is of importance in understanding how proteins interact with their environment and in manipulating such interactions in a plethora of biotechnological applications. Thus far, this challenge remains to be tackled. Here, we introduce force-distance curve-based atomic force microscopy (FD-based AFM) for the high-resolution imaging of SAS-6, a protein that self-assembles into cartwheel-like structures. Using functionalized AFM tips bearing Ni(2+)-N-nitrilotriacetate groups, we locate specific interaction sites on SAS-6 at nanometer resolution and quantify the binding strength of the Ni(2+)-NTA groups to histidine residues. The FD-based AFM approach can readily be applied to image any other native protein and to locate and structurally map histidine residues. Moreover, the surface chemistry used to functionalize the AFM tip can be modified to map other chemical interaction sites.

Molecular volumes of DOPC and DOPS in mixed bilayers of multilamellar vesicles

Specific volume of 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine and 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-l-serine mixtures in bilayers linearly depends on the molar fraction of the constituents, indicating an ideal volume mixing.

Micropattern of antibodies imaged by shear force microscopy: comparison between classical and jumping modes

Quartz tuning fork devices are increasingly being used as nanosensors in Scanning Probe Microscopy. They offer some benefits with respect to standard microfabricated cantilevers in certain experimental setups including the study of biomolecules under physiological conditions. In this work, we compare three different working modes for imaging micropatterned antibodies with quartz tuning fork sensors: apart from the classical amplitude and frequency modulation strategies, for first time the jumping mode is implemented using tuning forks. Our results show that the molecules suffer less degradation when working in the jumping mode, due to the reduction of the interaction forces.

Preparation of DOPC and DPPC Supported Planar Lipid Bilayers for Atomic Force Microscopy and Atomic Force Spectroscopy

Cell membranes are typically very complex, consisting of a multitude of different lipids and proteins. Supported lipid bilayers are widely used as model systems to study biological membranes. Atomic force microscopy and force spectroscopy techniques are nanoscale methods that are successfully used to study supported lipid bilayers. These methods, especially force spectroscopy, require the reliable preparation of supported lipid bilayers with extended coverage. The unreliability and a lack of a complete understanding of the vesicle fusion process though have held back progress in this promising field. We document here robust protocols for the formation of fluid phase DOPC and gel phase DPPC bilayers on mica. Insights into the most crucial experimental parameters and a comparison between DOPC and DPPC preparation are presented. Finally, we demonstrate force spectroscopy measurements on DOPC surfaces and measure rupture forces and bilayer depths that agree well with X-ray diffraction data. We also believe our approach to decomposing the force-distance curves into depth sub-components provides a more reliable method for characterising the depth of fluid phase lipid bilayers, particularly in comparison with typical image analysis approaches.

Probing membrane protein interactions with their lipid raft environment using single-molecule tracking and Bayesian inference analysis

The statistical properties of membrane protein random walks reveal information on the interactions between the proteins and their environments. These interactions can be included in an overdamped Langevin equation framework where they are injected in either or both the friction field and the potential field. Using a Bayesian inference scheme, both the friction and potential fields acting on the ε-toxin receptor in its lipid raft have been measured. Two types of events were used to probe these interactions. First, active events, the removal of cholesterol and sphingolipid molecules, were used to measure the time evolution of confining potentials and diffusion fields. Second, passive rare events, de-confinement of the receptors from one raft and transition to an adjacent one, were used to measure hopping energies. Lipid interactions with the ε-toxin receptor are found to be an essential source of confinement. ε-toxin receptor confinement is due to both the friction and potential field induced by cholesterol and sphingolipids. Finally, the statistics of hopping energies reveal sub-structures of potentials in the rafts, characterized by small hopping energies, and the difference of solubilization energy between the inner and outer raft area, characterized by higher hopping energies.

Atomic force microscopy: a versatile tool to probe the physical and chemical properties of supported membranes at the nanoscale

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was developed in the 1980s following the invention of its precursor, scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), earlier in the decade. Several modes of operation have evolved, demonstrating the extreme versatility of this method for measuring the physicochemical properties of samples at the nanoscopic scale. AFM has proved an invaluable technique for visualizing the topographic characteristics of phospholipid monolayers and bilayers, such as roughness, height or laterally segregated domains. Implemented modes such as phase imaging have also provided criteria for discriminating the viscoelastic properties of different supported lipid bilayer (SLB) regions. In this review, we focus on the AFM force spectroscopy (FS) mode, which enables determination of the nanomechanical properties of membrane models. The interpretation of force curves is presented, together with newly emerging techniques that provide complementary information on physicochemical properties that may contribute to our understanding of the structure and function of biomembranes. Since AFM is an imaging technique, some basic indications on how real-time AFM imaging is evolving are also presented at the end of this paper.

Liposomes bearing fibrinogen could potentially interfere with platelet interaction and procoagulant activity

Background

The contribution of fibrinogen (FBN) to hemostasis acting on platelet aggregation and clot formation is well established. It has been suggested that FBN-coated liposomes could be useful in restoring hemostasis. In the present study, we evaluated the modifications induced by multilamellar raw liposomes (MLV) or fibrinogen-coated liposomes (MLV-FBN) on hemostatic parameters.

Materials and methods

Different experimental settings using whole blood or thrombocy-topenic blood were used. Thromboelastometry, aggregation studies, platelet function analyzer (PFA-100^®) tests and studies under flow conditions were applied to detect the effect of MLV-FBN on hemostatic parameters.

Results

The presence of MLV-FBN in whole blood modified its viscoelastic properties, prolonging clot formation time (CFT) (226.5 ± 26.1 mm versus 124.1 ± 9.4 mm; P < 0.01) but reducing clot firmness (45.4 ± 1.8 mm versus 35.5 ± 2.3 mm; P < 0.05). Under thrombocy-topenic conditions, FIBTEM analysis revealed that MLV-FBN shortened clotting time (CT) compared to MLV (153.3 ± 2.8 s versus 128.0 ± 4.6 s; P < 0.05). Addition of either liposome decreased fibrin formation on the subendothelium (MLV 8.1% ± 4.7% and MLV-FBN 0.8% ± 0.5% versus control 36.4% ± 6.7%; P < 0.01), whereas only MLV-FBN significantly reduced fibrin deposition in thrombocytopenic blood (14.4% ± 6.3% versus control 34.5% ± 5.2%; P < 0.05). MLV-FBN inhibited aggregation induced by arachidonic acid (52.1% ± 8.1% versus 88.0% ± 2.1% in control; P < 0.01) and ristocetin (40.3% ± 8.8% versus 94.3% ± 1.1%; P < 0.005), but it did not modify closure times in PFA-100^® studies. In perfusion experiments using whole blood, MLV and MLV-FBN decreased the covered surface (13.25% ± 2.4% and 9.85% ± 2.41%, respectively, versus control 22.0% ± 2.0%; P < 0.01) and the percentage of large aggregates (8.4% ± 2.3% and 3.3% ± 1.01%, respectively, versus control 14.6% ± 1.8%; P < 0.01).

Conclusion

Our results reveal that, in addition to the main contribution of fibrinogen to hemostasis, MLV-FBN inhibits platelet-mediated hemostasis and coagulation mechanisms.