Impact of methylation on the physical properties of DNA

FTO promotes gefitinib-resistance by enhancing PELI3 expression and autophagy in non-small cell lung cancer

The established recognition of N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification as an indispensable regulatory agent in human cancer is widely accepted. However, the understanding of m6A's role and the mechanisms underlying its contribution to gefitinib resistance is notably limited. Herein, using RT-qPCR, Western blot, Cell proliferation and apoptosis, as well as RNA m6A modification assays, we substantiated that heightened FTO (Fat Mass and Obesity-associated protein) expression substantially underpins the emergence of gefitinib resistance in NSCLC cells. This FTO-driven gefitinib resistance is hinged upon the co-occurrence of PELI3 (Pellino E3 Ubiquitin Protein Ligase Family Member 3) expression and concurrent autophagy activation. Manipulation of PELI3 expression and autophagy activation, including its attenuation, was efficacious in both inducing and overcoming gefitinib resistance within NSCLC cells, as validated in vitro and in vivo. In summary, this study has successfully elucidated the intricate interplay involving FTO-mediated m6A modification, its consequential downstream effect on PELI3, and the concurrent involvement of autophagy in fostering the emergence of gefitinib resistance within the therapeutic context of NSCLC.

Now and then in eukaryotic DNA methylation

Since the mid-1970s, increasingly innovative methods to detect DNA methylation provided detailed information about its distribution, functions, and dynamics. As a result, new concepts were formulated and older ones were revised, transforming our understanding of the associated biology and catalyzing unprecedented advances in biomedical research, drug development, anthropology, and evolutionary biology. In this review, we discuss a few of the most notable advances, which are intimately intertwined with the study of DNA methylation, with a particular emphasis on the past three decades. Examples of these strides include elucidating the intricacies of 5-methylcytosine (5-mC) oxidation, which are at the core of the reversibility of this epigenetic modification; the three-dimensional structural characterization of eukaryotic DNA methyltransferases, which offered insights into the mechanisms that explain several disease-associated mutations; a more in-depth understanding of DNA methylation in development and disease; the possibility to learn about the biology of extinct species; the development of epigenetic clocks and their use to interrogate aging and disease; and the emergence of epigenetic biomarkers and therapies.

The impact of sequence periodicity on DNA mechanics: investigating the origin of A-tract's curvature

Periodic sequences in phase with DNA helical shape are prevalent in genomes due to their capacity to modulate DNA elasticity on a global scale. However, how this occurs is not well understood. We use all-atom molecular dynamics simulations on 40 bp DNA fragments to assess the effect of periodicity on bending, twisting, and stretch elasticity. We observe that DNA static curvature is the mechanical parameter most influenced by periodicity, with A-tract sequences having the greatest effect. A-tracts generate global curvature by bending in distinct directions (minor groove and backbones) that complement the bending of the rest of DNA, which predominantly is towards the major groove. Even if A-tracts are rigid at the local scale, these small bends integrate with the greater bends from the sequences between, producing an amplifying effect. As a result, our findings support a 'delocalized bend' model in which the A-tract operates as an 'adaptable mechanical part'. By understanding how global curvature emerges from local fluctuations, we reconcile previous contradictory theories and open an avenue for manipulating DNA mechanics through sequence design.

Dealkylation of Macromolecules by Eukaryotic α-Ketoglutarate-Dependent Dioxygenases from the AlkB-like Family

Alkylating modifications induced by either exogenous chemical agents or endogenous metabolites are some of the main types of damage to DNA, RNA, and proteins in the cell. Although research in recent decades has been almost entirely devoted to the repair of alkyl and in particular methyl DNA damage, more and more data lately suggest that the methylation of RNA bases plays an equally important role in normal functioning and in the development of diseases. Among the most prominent participants in the repair of methylation-induced DNA and RNA damage are human homologs of Escherichia coli AlkB, nonheme Fe(II)/α-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases ABH1-8, and FTO. Moreover, some of these enzymes have been found to act on several protein targets. In this review, we present up-to-date data on specific features of protein structure, substrate specificity, known roles in the organism, and consequences of disfunction of each of the nine human homologs of AlkB. Special attention is given to reports about the effects of natural single-nucleotide polymorphisms on the activity of these enzymes and to potential consequences for carriers of such natural variants.

G-quadruplex forming regions in GCK and TM6SF2 are targets for differential DNA methylation in metabolic disease and hepatocellular carcinoma patients

The alarming increase in global rates of metabolic diseases (MetDs) and their association with cancer risk renders them a considerable burden on our society. The interplay of environmental and genetic factors in causing MetDs may be reflected in DNA methylation patterns, particularly at non-canonical (non-B) DNA structures, such as G-quadruplexes (G4s) or R-loops. To gain insight into the mechanisms of MetD progression, we focused on DNA methylation and functional analyses on intragenic regions of two MetD risk genes, the glucokinase (GCK) exon 7 and the transmembrane 6 superfamily 2 (TM6SF2) intron 2-exon 3 boundary, which harbor non-B DNA motifs for G4s and R-loops.Pyrosequencing of 148 blood samples from a nested cohort study revealed significant differential methylation in GCK and TM6SF2 in MetD patients versus healthy controls. Furthermore, these regions harbor hypervariable and differentially methylated CpGs also in hepatocellular carcinoma versus normal tissue samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). Permanganate/S1 nuclease footprinting with direct adapter ligation (PDAL-Seq), native polyacrylamide DNA gel electrophoresis and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy revealed the formation of G4 structures in these regions and demonstrated that their topology and stability is affected by DNA methylation. Detailed analyses including histone marks, chromatin conformation capture data, and luciferase reporter assays, highlighted the cell-type specific regulatory function of the target regions. Based on our analyses, we hypothesize that changes in DNA methylation lead to topological changes, especially in GCK exon 7, and cause the activation of alternative regulatory elements or potentially play a role in alternative splicing.Our analyses provide a new view on the mechanisms underlying the progression of MetDs and their link to hepatocellular carcinomas, unveiling non-B DNA structures as important key players already in early disease stages.

Programming crystallization kinetics of self-assembled DNA crystals with 5-methylcytosine modification

Self-assembled DNA crystals offer a precise chemical platform at the ångström-scale for DNA nanotechnology, holding enormous potential in material separation, catalysis, and DNA data storage. However, accurately controlling the crystallization kinetics of such DNA crystals remains challenging. Herein, we found that atomic-level 5-methylcytosine (5mC) modification can regulate the crystallization kinetics of DNA crystal by tuning the hybridization rates of DNA motifs. We discovered that by manipulating the axial and combination of 5mC modification on the sticky ends of DNA tensegrity triangle motifs, we can obtain a series of DNA crystals with controllable morphological features. Through DNA-PAINT and FRET-labeled DNA strand displacement experiments, we elucidate that atomic-level 5mC modification enhances the affinity constant of DNA hybridization at both the single-molecule and macroscopic scales. This enhancement can be harnessed for kinetic-driven control of the preferential growth direction of DNA crystals. The 5mC modification strategy can overcome the limitations of DNA sequence design imposed by limited nucleobase numbers in various DNA hybridization reactions. This strategy provides a new avenue for the manipulation of DNA crystal structure, valuable for the advancement of DNA and biomacromolecular crystallography.

Sequence-Dependent Properties of the RNA Duplex

Sequence-dependent properties of the DNA duplex have been accurately described using extensive molecular dynamics simulations. The RNA duplex meanwhile─which is typically represented as a sequence-averaged rigid rod─does not benefit from having equivalent molecular dynamics simulations. In this paper, we present a massive simulation effort using a set of ABC-optimized duplexes from which we derived tetramer-resolution properties of the RNA duplex and a simple mesoscopic model that can represent elastic properties of long RNA duplexes. Despite the extreme chemical similarity between DNA and RNA, the local and global elastic properties of the duplexes are very different. DNA duplexes show a complex and nonelastic pattern of flexibility, for instance, while RNA duplexes behave as an elastic system whose deformations can be represented by simple harmonic potentials. In RNA duplexes (RNA2), not only are intra- and interbase pair parameters (equilibrium and mechanical) different from those in the equivalent DNA duplex sequences (DNA2) but the correlations between movements also differ. Simple statements on the relative flexibility or stability of both polymers are meaningless and should be substituted by a more detailed description depending on the sequence and the type of deformation considered.

Shaping eukaryotic epigenetic systems by horizontal gene transfer

DNA methylation constitutes one of the pillars of epigenetics, relying on covalent bonds for addition and/or removal of chemically distinct marks within the major groove of the double helix. DNA methyltransferases, enzymes which introduce methyl marks, initially evolved in prokaryotes as components of restriction-modification systems protecting host genomes from bacteriophages and other invading foreign DNA. In early eukaryotic evolution, DNA methyltransferases were horizontally transferred from bacteria into eukaryotes several times and independently co-opted into epigenetic regulatory systems, primarily via establishing connections with the chromatin environment. While C5-methylcytosine is the cornerstone of plant and animal epigenetics and has been investigated in much detail, the epigenetic role of other methylated bases is less clear. The recent addition of N4-methylcytosine of bacterial origin as a metazoan DNA modification highlights the prerequisites for foreign gene co-option into the host regulatory networks, and challenges the existing paradigms concerning the origin and evolution of eukaryotic regulatory systems.

G-quadruplex formation at human DAT1 gene promoter: Effect of cytosine methylation

The dopamine transporter gene (DAT1), a recognized genetic risk factor for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is principally responsible for the regulation of dopamine synaptic levels and serves as a key target in many psychostimulants drugs. DAT1 gene methylation has been considered an epigenetic marker in ADHD. The identification of G-rich sequence motifs potential to form G-quadruplexes is correlated with functionally important genomic regions. Herein, biophysical and biochemical techniques are employed to investigate the structural polymorphism along with the effect of cytosine methylation on a 26-nt G-rich sequence present in the promoter region of the DAT1 gene. The gel electrophoresis, circular dichroism spectroscopy, and UV-thermal melting data are well correlated and conclude the formation of a parallel (bimolecular), as well as antiparallel (tetramolecular) G-quadruplex in Na⁺ solution. Interestingly, the existence of uni-, bi-, tri-, and tetramolecular quadruplex structures in K⁺ solution exhibited only the parallel type G-quadruplex. The results demonstrate that in presence of either cation (Na⁺ or K⁺) the cytosine methylation reserved the structural topologies unaltered. However, methylation lowers the thermal stability of G-quadruplexes and the duplex structures, as well. These findings provide insights to understand the regulatory mechanisms underlying the formation of the G-quadruplex structure induced by DNA methylation.

Influence of 2'-Modifications (O-Methylation, Fluorination, and Stereochemical Inversion) on the Base Pairing Energies of Protonated Cytidine Nucleoside Analogue Base Pairs: Implications for the Stabilities of i-Motif Structures

Naturally occurring and chemically engineered modifications are among the most powerful strategies explored for fine-tuning the conformational characteristics and intrinsic stability of nucleic acids topologies. Modifications at the 2'-position of the ribose or 2'-deoxyribose moieties differentiate nucleic acid structures and have a significant impact on their electronic properties and base-pairing interactions. 2'-O-Methylation, a common post-transcriptional modification of tRNA, is directly involved in modulating specific anticodon-codon base-pairing interactions. 2'-Fluorinated and arabino nucleosides possess novel and beneficial medicinal properties and find use as therapeutics for treating viral diseases and cancer. However, the potential to deploy 2'-modified cytidine chemistries for tuning i-motif stability is largely unknown. To address this knowledge gap, the effects of 2'-modifications including O-methylation, fluorination, and stereochemical inversion on the base-pairing interactions of protonated cytidine nucleoside analogue base pairs, the core stabilizing interactions of i-motif structures, are examined using complementary threshold collision-induced dissociation techniques and computational methods. The 2'-modified cytidine nucleoside analogues investigated here include 2'-O-methylcytidine, 2'-fluoro-2'-deoxycytidine, arabinofuranosylcytosine, 2'-fluoro-arabinofuranosylcytosine, and 2',2'-difluoro-2'-deoxycytidine. All five 2'-modifications examined here are found to enhance the base-pairing interactions relative to the canonical DNA and RNA cytidine nucleosides with the greatest enhancements arising from 2'-O-methylation and 2',2'-difluorination, suggesting that these modifications should well be tolerated in the narrow grooves of i-motif conformations.

The effect of a methyl group on structure and function: Serine vs. threonine glycosylation and phosphorylation

A variety of glycan structures cover the surface of all cells and are involved in myriad biological processes, including but not limited to, cell adhesion and communication, protein quality control, signal transduction and metabolism, while also being intimately involved in innate and adaptive immune functions. Immune surveillance and responses to foreign carbohydrate antigens, such as capsular polysaccharides on bacteria and surface protein glycosylation of viruses, are the basis of microbial clearance, and most antimicrobial vaccines target these structures. In addition, aberrant glycans on tumors called Tumor-Associated Carbohydrate Antigens (TACAs) elicit immune responses to cancer, and TACAs have been used in the design of many antitumor vaccine constructs. A majority of mammalian TACAs are derived from what are referred to as mucin-type O-linked glycans on cell-surface proteins and are linked to the protein backbone through the hydroxyl group of either serine or threonine residues. A small group of structural studies that have compared mono- and oligosaccharides attached to each of these residues have shown that there are distinct differences in conformational preferences assumed by glycans attached to either "unmethylated" serine or ß-methylated threonine. This suggests that the linkage point of antigenic glycans will affect their presentation to the immune system as well as to various carbohydrate binding molecules (e.g., lectins). This short review, followed by our hypothesis, will examine this possibility and extend the concept to the presentation of glycans on surfaces and in assay systems where recognition of glycans by proteins and other binding partners can be defined by different attachment points that allow for a range of conformational presentations.

Synonymous alterations of cancer-associated Trp53 CpG mutational hotspots cause fatal developmental jaw malocclusions but no tumors in knock-in mice

Intragenic CpG dinucleotides are tightly conserved in evolution yet are also vulnerable to methylation-dependent mutation, raising the question as to why these functionally critical sites have not been deselected by more stable coding sequences. We previously showed in cell lines that altered exonic CpG methylation can modify promoter start sites, and hence protein isoform expression, for the human TP53 tumor suppressor gene. Here we extend this work to the in vivo setting by testing whether synonymous germline modifications of exonic CpG sites affect murine development, fertility, longevity, or cancer incidence. We substituted the DNA-binding exons 5-8 of Trp53, the mouse ortholog of human TP53, with variant-CpG (either CpG-depleted or -enriched) sequences predicted to encode the normal p53 amino acid sequence; a control construct was also created in which all non-CpG sites were synonymously substituted. Homozygous Trp53-null mice were the only genotype to develop tumors. Mice with variant-CpG Trp53 sequences remained tumor-free, but were uniquely prone to dental anomalies causing jaw malocclusion (p < .0001). Since the latter phenotype also characterises murine Rett syndrome due to dysfunction of the trans-repressive MeCP2 methyl-CpG-binding protein, we hypothesise that CpG sites may exert non-coding phenotypic effects via pre-translational cis-interactions of 5-methylcytosine with methyl-binding proteins which regulate mRNA transcript initiation, expression or splicing, although direct effects on mRNA structure or translation are also possible.

Deciphering the mechanical code of the genome and epigenome

Diverse DNA-deforming processes are impacted by the local mechanical and structural properties of DNA, which in turn depend on local sequence and epigenetic modifications. Deciphering this mechanical code (that is, this dependence) has been challenging due to the lack of high-throughput experimental methods. Here we present a comprehensive characterization of the mechanical code. Utilizing high-throughput measurements of DNA bendability via loop-seq, we quantitatively established how the occurrence and spatial distribution of dinucleotides, tetranucleotides and methylated CpG impact DNA bendability. We used our measurements to develop a physical model for the sequence and methylation dependence of DNA bendability. We validated the model by performing loop-seq on mouse genomic sequences around transcription start sites and CTCF-binding sites. We applied our model to test the predictions of all-atom molecular dynamics simulations and to demonstrate that sequence and epigenetic modifications can mechanically encode regulatory information in diverse contexts.

Pronounced sequence specificity of the TET enzyme catalytic domain guides its cellular function

TET (ten-eleven translocation) enzymes catalyze the oxidation of 5-methylcytosine bases in DNA, thus driving active and passive DNA demethylation. Here, we report that the catalytic domain of mammalian TET enzymes favor CGs embedded within basic helix-loop-helix and basic leucine zipper domain transcription factor-binding sites, with up to 250-fold preference in vitro. Crystal structures and molecular dynamics calculations show that sequence preference is caused by intrasubstrate interactions and CG flanking sequence indirectly affecting enzyme conformation. TET sequence preferences are physiologically relevant as they explain the rates of DNA demethylation in TET-rescue experiments in culture and in vivo within the zygote and germ line. Most and least favorable TET motifs represent DNA sites that are bound by methylation-sensitive immediate-early transcription factors and octamer-binding transcription factor 4 (OCT4), respectively, illuminating TET function in transcriptional responses and pluripotency support.

Influence of 5-Halogenation on the Base-Pairing Energies of Protonated Cytidine Nucleoside Analogue Base Pairs: Implications for the Stabilities of Synthetic i-Motif Structures for DNA Nanotechnology Applications

DNA nanotechnology has been employed to develop devices based on i-motif structures. The protonated cytosine-cytosine base pairs that stabilize i-motif conformations are favored under slightly acidic conditions. This unique property has enabled development of the first DNA molecular motor driven by pH changes. The ability to alter the stability and pH transition range of such DNA molecular motors is desirable. Understanding how i-motif structures are influenced by modifications, and which modifications enhance stability and/or affect the pH characteristics, are therefore of great interest. Here, the influence of 5-halogenation of the cytosine nucleobases on the base pairing of protonated cytidine nucleoside analogue base pairs is examined using complementary threshold collision-induced dissociation techniques and computational methods. The nucleoside analogues examined here include the 5-halogenated forms of the canonical DNA and RNA cytidine nucleosides. Comparisons among these systems and to the analogous canonical base pairs previously examined enable the influence of 5-halogenation and the 2'-hydroxy substituent on the base pairing to be elucidated. 5-Halogenation of the cytosine nucleobases is found to enhance the strength of base pairing of DNA base pairs and generally weakens the base pairing for RNA base pairs. Trends in the strength of base pairing indicate that both inductive and polarizability effects influence the strength of base pairing. Overall, the present results suggest that 5-halogenation, and in particular, 5-fluorination and 5-iodination, provide effective means of stabilizing DNA i-motif conformations for applications in nanotechnology, whereas only 5-iodination is effective for stabilizing RNA i-motif conformations but the enhancement in stability is less significant.

DNA methylation: Precise modulation of chromatin structure and dynamics

DNA methylation plays a vital role in epigenetic regulation in both plants and animals, and typically occurs at the 5-carbon position of the cytosine pyrimidine ring within the CpG dinucleotide steps. Cytosine methylation can alter DNA's geometry, mechanical and physico-chemical properties - thus influencing the molecular signaling events vital for transcription, replication and chromatin remodeling. Despite the profound effect cytosine methylation can have on DNA, the underlying atomistic mechanisms remain enigmatic. Many studies so far have produced controversial findings on how cytosine methylation dictates DNA flexibility and accessibility, nucleosome stability and dynamics. Here, we review the most recent experimental and computational studies that provide precise characterization of structure and function of cytosine methylation and its versatile roles in modulating DNA mechanics, nucleosome and chromatin structure, stability and dynamics. Moreover, the review briefly discusses the relationship between DNA methylation and nucleosome positioning, and the crosstalk between DNA methylation and histone tail modifications.

Cytosine methylation regulates DNA bendability depending on the curvature

Cytosine methylation plays an essential role in many biological processes, such as nucleosome inactivation and regulation of gene expression. The modulation of DNA mechanics may be one of the regulatory mechanisms influenced by cytosine methylation. However, it remains unclear how methylation influences DNA mechanics. Here, we show that methylation has contrasting effects on the bending property of dsDNA depending on DNA curvature. We directly applied bending force on 30 base pairs of dsDNA using a D-shaped DNA nanostructure and measured the degree of bending using single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer without surface immobilization. When dsDNA is weakly bent, methylation increases the stiffness of dsDNA. The stiffness of dsDNA increased by approximately 8% with a single methylation site for 30 bp dsDNA. When dsDNA is highly bent by a strong force, it forms a kink, i.e., a sharp bending of dsDNA. Under strong bending, methylation destabilizes the non-kink form compared with the kink form, which makes dsDNA near the kink region apparently more bendable. However, if the kink region is methylated, the kink form is destabilized, and dsDNA becomes stiffer. As a result, methylation increases the stiffness of weakly bent dsDNA and concurrently can promote kink formation, which may stabilize the nucleosome structure. Our results provide new insight into the effect of methylation, showing that cytosine methylation has opposite effects on DNA mechanics depending on its curvature and methylation location.

DNA N6-Methyladenine Modification in Eukaryotic Genome

DNA methylation is treated as an important epigenetic mark in various biological activities. In the past, a large number of articles focused on 5 mC while lacking attention to N6-methyladenine (6 mA). The presence of 6 mA modification was previously discovered only in prokaryotes. Recently, with the development of detection technologies, 6 mA has been found in several eukaryotes, including protozoans, metazoans, plants, and fungi. The importance of 6 mA in prokaryotes and single-celled eukaryotes has been widely accepted. However, due to the incredibly low density of 6 mA and restrictions on detection technologies, the prevalence of 6 mA and its role in biological processes in eukaryotic organisms are highly debated. In this review, we first summarize the advantages and disadvantages of 6 mA detection methods. Then, we conclude existing reports on the prevalence of 6 mA in eukaryotic organisms. Next, we highlight possible methyltransferases, demethylases, and the recognition proteins of 6 mA. In addition, we summarize the functions of 6 mA in eukaryotes. Last but not least, we summarize our point of view and put forward the problems that need further research.

Enhanced nucleosome assembly at CpG sites containing an extended 5-methylcytosine analogue

Methylation of cytosine to 5-methylcytosine (mC) at CpG sites is a prevalent reversible epigenetic mark in vertebrates established by DNA methyltransferases (MTases); the attached methyl groups can alter local structure of DNA and chromatin as well as binding of dedicated proteins. Nucleosome assembly on methylated DNA has been studied extensively, however little is known how the chromatin structure is affected by larger chemical variations in the major groove of DNA. Here, we studied the nucleosome formation in vitro on DNA containing an extended 5mC analog, 5-(6-azidohex-2-ynyl)cytosine (ahyC) installed at biological relevant CpG sites. We found that multiple ahyC residues on 80-Widom and Hsp70 promoter DNA fragments proved compatible with nucleosome assembly. Moreover, unlike mC, ahyC increases the affinity of histones to the DNA, partially altering nucleosome positioning, stability, and the action of chromatin remodelers. Based on molecular dynamics calculations, we suggest that these new features are due to increased DNA flexibility at ahyC-modified sites. Our findings provide new insights into the biophysical behavior of modified DNA and open new ways for directed design of synthetic nucleosomes.

Challenges in Analyzing Functional Epigenetic Data in Perspective of Adolescent Psychiatric Health

The formative period of adolescence plays a crucial role in the development of skills and abilities for adulthood. Adolescents who are affected by mental health conditions are at risk of suicide and social and academic impairments. Gene-environment complementary contributions to the molecular mechanisms involved in psychiatric disorders have emphasized the need to analyze epigenetic marks such as DNA methylation (DNAm) and non-coding RNAs. However, the large and diverse bioinformatic and statistical methods, referring to the confounders of the statistical models, application of multiple-testing adjustment methods, questions regarding the correlation of DNAm across tissues, and sex-dependent differences in results, have raised challenges regarding the interpretation of the results. Based on the example of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and depressive disorder (MDD), we shed light on the current knowledge and usage of methodological tools in analyzing epigenetics. Statistical robustness is an essential prerequisite for a better understanding and interpretation of epigenetic modifications and helps to find novel targets for personalized therapeutics in psychiatric diseases.

DNA methylation cues in nucleosome geometry, stability and unwrapping

Cytosine methylation at the 5-carbon position is an essential DNA epigenetic mark in many eukaryotic organisms. Although countless structural and functional studies of cytosine methylation have been reported, our understanding of how it influences the nucleosome assembly, structure, and dynamics remains obscure. Here, we investigate the effects of cytosine methylation at CpG sites on nucleosome dynamics and stability. By applying long molecular dynamics simulations on several microsecond time scale, we generate extensive atomistic conformational ensembles of full nucleosomes. Our results reveal that methylation induces pronounced changes in geometry for both linker and nucleosomal DNA, leading to a more curved, under-twisted DNA, narrowing the adjacent minor grooves, and shifting the population equilibrium of sugar-phosphate backbone geometry. These DNA conformational changes are associated with a considerable enhancement of interactions between methylated DNA and the histone octamer, doubling the number of contacts at some key arginines. H2A and H3 tails play important roles in these interactions, especially for DNA methylated nucleosomes. This, in turn, prevents a spontaneous DNA unwrapping of 3-4 helical turns for the methylated nucleosome with truncated histone tails, otherwise observed in the unmethylated system on several microseconds time scale.

OUP accepted manuscript

DNA mechanical properties play a critical role in every aspect of DNA-dependent biological processes. Recently a high throughput assay named loop-seq has been developed to quantify the intrinsic bendability of a massive number of DNA fragments simultaneously. Using the loop-seq data, we develop a software tool, DNAcycP, based on a deep-learning approach for intrinsic DNA cyclizability prediction. We demonstrate DNAcycP predicts intrinsic DNA cyclizability with high fidelity compared to the experimental data. Using an independent dataset from in vitro selection for enrichment of loopable sequences, we further verified the predicted cyclizability score, termed C-score, can well distinguish DNA fragments with different loopability. We applied DNAcycP to multiple species and compared the C-scores with available high-resolution chemical nucleosome maps. Our analyses showed that both yeast and mouse genomes share a conserved feature of high DNA bendability spanning nucleosome dyads. Additionally, we extended our analysis to transcription factor binding sites and surprisingly found that the cyclizability is substantially elevated at CTCF binding sites in the mouse genome. We further demonstrate this distinct mechanical property is conserved across mammalian species and is inherent to CTCF binding DNA motif.

Modified cytosines versus cytosine in a DNA polymerase: retrieving thermodynamic and kinetic constants at the single molecule level

DNA methylation plays key roles in various areas, such as gene expression, regulation, epigenetics, and cancers. Since 5-methylcytosine (5mC) is commonly present in methylated DNA, characterizing the binding kinetics and thermodynamics of the nucleotide to the enzymatic pocket can help to understand the DNA replication process. Furthermore, 5-carboxycytosine (5caC) is a form that appears through the iterative oxidation of 5mC, and its effect on the DNA replication process is still not well known. Here, we immobilized a DNA polymerase (DNAP) with an orientation control on a tip of an atomic force microscope (AFM), and observed the interaction between the immobilized deoxyguanosine triphosphate (dGTP) on the surface and the DNAP in the presence of a DNA duplex. The interaction probability increased as the concentration of the DNA strand, and the affinity constant between the DNAP and DNA was obtained by fitting the change. Increasing the concentration of dGTP in solution diminished the interaction probability, and a fitting allowed us to retrieve the affinity constant between dGTP and the DNAP holding the DNA in the reaction pocket. Because the dissociation constant could be obtained through the loading rate dependence of the unbinding force value, both affinity and kinetic constants for cytosine (C), 5mC, and 5caC in the DNAP were compared in the light of the steric and electronic effect of the substituents at 5-position of cytosine.

Structural basis of DNA methylation-dependent site selectivity of the Epstein-Barr virus lytic switch protein ZEBRA/Zta/BZLF1

In infected cells, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) alternates between latency and lytic replication. The viral bZIP transcription factor ZEBRA (Zta, BZLF1) regulates this cycle by binding to two classes of ZEBRA response elements (ZREs): CpG-free motifs resembling the consensus AP-1 site recognized by cellular bZIP proteins and CpG-containing motifs that are selectively bound by ZEBRA upon cytosine methylation. We report structural and mutational analysis of ZEBRA bound to a CpG-methylated ZRE (meZRE) from a viral lytic promoter. ZEBRA recognizes the CpG methylation marks through a ZEBRA-specific serine and a methylcytosine-arginine-guanine triad resembling that found in canonical methyl-CpG binding proteins. ZEBRA preferentially binds the meZRE over the AP-1 site but mutating the ZEBRA-specific serine to alanine inverts this selectivity and abrogates viral replication. Our findings elucidate a DNA methylation-dependent switch in ZEBRA's transactivation function that enables ZEBRA to bind AP-1 sites and promote viral latency early during infection and subsequently, under appropriate conditions, to trigger EBV lytic replication by binding meZREs.

The Impact of the HydroxyMethylCytosine epigenetic signature on DNA structure and function

We present a comprehensive, experimental and theoretical study of the impact of 5-hydroxymethylation of DNA cytosine. Using molecular dynamics, biophysical experiments and NMR spectroscopy, we found that Ten-Eleven translocation (TET) dioxygenases generate an epigenetic variant with structural and physical properties similar to those of 5-methylcytosine. Experiments and simulations demonstrate that 5-methylcytosine (mC) and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (hmC) generally lead to stiffer DNA than normal cytosine, with poorer circularization efficiencies and lower ability to form nucleosomes. In particular, we can rule out the hypothesis that hydroxymethylation reverts to unmodified cytosine physical properties, as hmC is even more rigid than mC. Thus, we do not expect dramatic changes in the chromatin structure induced by differences in physical properties between d(mCpG) and d(hmCpG). Conversely, our simulations suggest that methylated-DNA binding domains (MBDs), associated with repression activities, are sensitive to the substitution d(mCpG) ➔ d(hmCpG), while MBD3 which has a dual activation/repression activity is not sensitive to the d(mCpG) d(hmCpG) change. Overall, while gene activity changes due to cytosine methylation are the result of the combination of stiffness-related chromatin reorganization and MBD binding, those associated to 5-hydroxylation of methylcytosine could be explained by a change in the balance of repression/activation pathways related to differential MBD binding.

In Eukaryotic cells, DNA epigenetic modifications play an important role in gene expression and regulation, and protein recognition. In this work we investigate the physical implications of cytosine 5-hydroxymethylation on DNA, its structural and flexibility differences with methylated and unmodified cytosine using molecular dynamics, biophysical experiments and NMR spectroscopy.

In particular the effect of hydroxyl group on free energy of nucleosome and Methyl binding Protein (MBD) binding, comparing in silico and experimental data to shed light on the effect of the reduced flexibility and the direct protein-DNA recognition.

Epigenetic interaction of microbes with their mammalian hosts

The interaction of microbiota with its host has the ability to alter the cellular functions of both, through several mechanisms. Recent work, from many laboratories including our own, has shown that epigenetic mechanisms play an important role in the alteration of these cellular functions. Epigenetics broadly refers to change in the phenotype without a corresponding change in the DNA sequence. This change is usually brought by epigenetic modifications of the DNA itself, the histone proteins associated with the DNA in the chromatin, non-coding RNA or the modifications of the transcribed RNA. These modifications, also known as epigenetic code, do not change the DNA sequence but alter the expression level of specific genes. Microorganisms seem to have learned how to modify the host epigenetic code and modulate the host transcriptome in their favour. In this review, we explore the literature that describes the epigenetic interaction of bacteria, fungi and viruses, with their mammalian hosts.

Molecular mechanism of methyl-dependent and spatial-specific DNA recognition of c-Jun homodimer

DNA methylation is important in regulation of gene expression and normal development because it alters the interplay between protein and DNA. Experiments have shown that a single 5-methylcytosine at different CpG sites (mCpG) might have different effects on specific recognition, but the atomistic origin and dynamic details are largely unclear. In this work, we investigated the mechanism of monomethylation at different CpG sites in the cognate motif and the cooperativity of full methylation. By constructing four models of c-Jun/Jun protein binding to the 5[Formula: see text]-XGAGTCA-3[Formula: see text] (X represents C or methylated C) motif, we characterized the dynamics of the contact interface using the all-atom molecular dynamics method. Free energy analysis of MM/GBSA suggests that regardless of whether the C12pG13 site of the bottom strand is methylated, the effects from mC25 of the top strand are dominant and can moderately enhance the binding by [Formula: see text] 31 kcal/mol, whereas mC12 showed a relatively small contribution, in agreement with the experimental data. Remarkably, we found that this spatial-specific influence was induced by different regulatory rules. The influence of the mC25 site is mainly mediated by steric hindrance. The additional methyl group leads to the conformational changes in nearby residues and triggers an obvious structural bending in the protein, which results in the formation of a new T-Asn-C triad that enhances the specific recognition of TCA half-sites. The substitution of the methyl group at the mC12 site of the bottom strand breaks the original H-bonds directly. Such changes in electrostatic interactions also lead to the remote allosteric effects of protein by multifaceted interactions but have negligible contributions to binding. Although these two influence modes are different, they can both fine-tune the local environment, which might produce remote allosteric effects through protein-protein interactions. Further analysis reveals that the discrepancies in these two modes are primarily due to their location. Moreover, when both sites are methylated, the major determinant of binding specificity depends on the context and the location of the methylation site, which is the result of crosstalk and cooperativity.

Influence of 5-Methylation and the 2'- and 3'-Hydroxy Substituents on the Base Pairing Energies of Protonated Cytidine Nucleoside Analogue Base Pairs: Implications for the Stabilities of i-Motif Structures

Repetitive nucleic acid sequences, which occur in abundance throughout the mammalian genome, are of enormous research interest due to their potential to adopt fascinating and unusual molecular structures such as the i-motif. In remarkable contrast to the DNA double helix, i-motif conformations are stabilized by protonated cytosine base pairs, (Cyt)H⁺(Cyt), that are centrally located in the core of the i-motif and intercalated vertically in an antiparallel fashion. An in-depth understanding of how modifications influence the stability of i-motif conformations is a prerequisite to understanding their biological functions and the development of effective means of tuning their stability for specific medical and technological applications. Here, the influence of the 2'- and 3'-hydroxy substituents of the sugar moieties and 5-methylation of the cytosine nucleobases on the base-pairing interactions of protonated cytidine nucleoside analogue base pairs, (xCyd)H⁺(xCyd), are examined by complementary threshold collision-induced dissociation techniques and computational methods. The xCyd nucleosides examined include the canonical DNA and RNA cytidine nucleosides, 2'-deoxycytidine (dCyd) and cytidine (Cyd), as well as several modified cytidine nucleoside analogues, 2',3'-dideoxycytidine (ddCyd), 5-methyl-2'-deoxycytidine (m⁵dCyd), and 5-methylcytidine (m⁵Cyd). Comparisons among these model base pairs indicate that the 2'- and 3'-hydroxy substituents of the sugar moieties have very little influence on the strength of the base-pairing interactions, whereas 5-methylation of the cytosine nucleobases is found to enhance the strength of the base-pairing interactions. The increase in stability resulting from 5-methylation is only modest but is more than twice as large for the DNA than RNA protonated cytidine base pair. Overall, present results suggest that canonical DNA i-motif conformations should be more stable than analogous RNA i-motif conformations and that 5-methylation of cytosine residues, a significant epigenetic marker, provides greater stabilization to DNA than RNA i-motif conformations.

A molecular view of DNA flexibility

DNA dynamics can only be understood by taking into account its complex mechanical behavior at different length scales. At the micrometer level, the mechanical properties of single DNA molecules have been well-characterized by polymer models and are commonly quantified by a persistence length of 50 nm (~150 bp). However, at the base pair level (~3.4 Å), the dynamics of DNA involves complex molecular mechanisms that are still being deciphered. Here, we review recent single-molecule experiments and molecular dynamics simulations that are providing novel insights into DNA mechanics from such a molecular perspective. We first discuss recent findings on sequence-dependent DNA mechanical properties, including sequences that resist mechanical stress and sequences that can accommodate strong deformations. We then comment on the intricate effects of cytosine methylation and DNA mismatches on DNA mechanics. Finally, we review recently reported differences in the mechanical properties of DNA and double-stranded RNA, the other double-helical carrier of genetic information. A thorough examination of the recent single-molecule literature permits establishing a set of general 'rules' that reasonably explain the mechanics of nucleic acids at the base pair level. These simple rules offer an improved description of certain biological systems and might serve as valuable guidelines for future design of DNA and RNA nanostructures.

Computational Insights into Molecular Adsorption Characteristics of Methylated DNA on Graphene Oxide for Multicancer Early Detection

DNA methylation is an epigenetic modification involving the transfer of a methyl group to cytosine residues of a DNA molecule. Altered DNA methylation of certain genes is associated with several diseases including cancer. Nanomaterials, such as graphene oxide (GO), offer great potential as sensing elements for methylated DNA (mDNA) detection due to their distinct properties. Understanding molecular interactions between mDNA and GO can make provision for developing a universal cancer screening test. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation and density functional theory (DFT) calculation have been employed for investigating their detailed macro- and microscale interactions. Based upon the MD simulation, different adsorption levels of methylated and unmethylated DNAs on GO were represented by a contacting surface area (CSA), which depends on surrounding conditions (in water or a MgCl₂ solution). In water, the CSAs of the methylated and unmethylated single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) were ≈13 and ≈5 nm², respectively, representing more preferable adsorption on GO for the methylated ssDNA. In the presence of divalent ions (Mg²⁺), the CSAs of both methylated and unmethylated DNA molecules were ≈8 nm², suggesting that there was no significant difference in adsorption in a saline solution. To reveal the electrical property of GO covered by either methylated or unmethylated DNA, its electronic structure was investigated by the DFT calculation. The energy gaps of pristine graphene (pG) and GO adsorbed by 5-methylcytosine (5mC) were 1.6 and 12.9 meV, respectively, while cytosine adsorption resulted in lower energy gaps (1.2 meV for pG and 9.5 meV for GO). When comparing methylated DNA-covered GO with that covered with unmethylated DNA, remarkable differences in electrical conductivity, which were caused by the electronic structure of GO, were observed. These findings will provide a new route for an efficient detection method of DNA methylation, which can further be used to develop a universal cancer test.

Impact of DNA methylation on 3D genome structure

Determining the effect of DNA methylation on chromatin structure and function in higher organisms is challenging due to the extreme complexity of epigenetic regulation. We studied a simpler model system, budding yeast, that lacks DNA methylation machinery making it a perfect model system to study the intrinsic role of DNA methylation in chromatin structure and function. We expressed the murine DNA methyltransferases in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and analyzed the correlation between DNA methylation, nucleosome positioning, gene expression and 3D genome organization. Despite lacking the machinery for positioning and reading methylation marks, induced DNA methylation follows a conserved pattern with low methylation levels at the 5’ end of the gene increasing gradually toward the 3’ end, with concentration of methylated DNA in linkers and nucleosome free regions, and with actively expressed genes showing low and high levels of methylation at transcription start and terminating sites respectively, mimicking the patterns seen in mammals. We also see that DNA methylation increases chromatin condensation in peri-centromeric regions, decreases overall DNA flexibility, and favors the heterochromatin state. Taken together, these results demonstrate that methylation intrinsically modulates chromatin structure and function even in the absence of cellular machinery evolved to recognize and process the methylation signal.

Multi-layered epigenetic regulation in higher eukaryotes makes it challenging to disentangle the individual effects of modifications on chromatin structure and function. Here, the authors expressed mammalian DNA methyltransferases in yeast, which have no DNA methylation, to show that methylation has intrinsic effects on chromatin structure.

Single-molecule micromanipulation studies of methylated DNA

Cytosine methylated at the five-carbon position is the most widely studied reversible DNA modification. Prior findings indicate that methylation can alter mechanical properties. However, those findings were qualitative and sometimes contradictory, leaving many aspects unclear. By applying single-molecule magnetic force spectroscopy techniques allowing for direct manipulation and dynamic observation of DNA mechanics and mechanically driven strand separation, we investigated how CpG and non-CpG cytosine methylation affects DNA micromechanical properties. We quantitatively characterized DNA stiffness using persistence length measurements from force-extension curves in the nanoscale length regime and demonstrated that cytosine methylation results in longer contour length and increased DNA flexibility (i.e., decreased persistence length). In addition, we observed the preferential formation of plectonemes over unwound single-stranded "bubbles" of DNA under physiologically relevant stretching forces and supercoiling densities. The flexibility and high structural stability of methylated DNA is likely to have significant consequences on the recruitment of proteins recognizing cytosine methylation and DNA packaging.

Phase separation of DNA: From past to present

Phase separation of biological molecules, such as nucleic acids and proteins, has garnered widespread attention across many fields in recent years. For instance, liquid-liquid phase separation has been implicated not only in membraneless intracellular organization but also in many biochemical processes, including transcription, translation, and cellular signaling. Here, we present a historical background of biological phase separation and survey current work on nuclear organization and its connection to DNA phase separation from the perspective of DNA sequence, structure, and genomic context.

DNA mechanics and its biological impact

Almost all nucleoprotein interactions and DNA manipulation events involve mechanical deformations of DNA. Extraordinary progresses in single-molecule, structural, and computational methods have characterized the average mechanical properties of DNA, such as bendability and torsional rigidity, in high resolution. Further, the advent of sequencing technology has permitted measuring, in high-throughput, how such mechanical properties vary with sequence and epigenetic modifications along genomes. We review these recent technological advancements, and discuss how they have contributed to the emerging idea that variations in the mechanical properties of DNA play a fundamental role in regulating, genome-wide, diverse processes involved in chromatin organization.

A perspective on the molecular simulation of DNA from structural and functional aspects

As genetic material, DNA not only carries genetic information by sequence, but also affects biological functions ranging from base modification to replication, transcription and gene regulation through its structural and dynamic properties and variations. The motion and structural properties of DNA involved in related biological processes are also multi-scale, ranging from single base flipping to local DNA deformation, TF binding, G-quadruplex and i-motif formation, TAD establishment, compartmentalization and even chromosome territory formation, just to name a few. The sequence-dependent physical properties of DNA play vital role in all these events, and thus it is interesting to examine how simple sequence information affects DNA and the formation of the chromatin structure in these different hierarchical orders. Accordingly, molecular simulations can provide atomistic details of interactions and conformational dynamics involved in different biological processes of DNA, including those inaccessible by current experimental methods. In this perspective, which is mainly based on our recent studies, we provide a brief overview of the atomistic simulations on how the hierarchical structure and dynamics of DNA can be influenced by its sequences, base modifications, environmental factors and protein binding in the context of the protein-DNA interactions, gene regulation and structural organization of chromatin. We try to connect the DNA sequence, the hierarchical structures of DNA and gene regulation.

Structural dynamics of double-stranded DNA with epigenome modification

Modification of cytosine plays an important role in epigenetic regulation of gene expression and genome stability. Cytosine is converted to 5-methylcytosine (5mC) by DNA methyltransferase; in turn, 5mC may be oxidized to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) by ten-eleven translocation enzyme. The structural flexibility of DNA is known to affect the binding of proteins to methylated DNA. Here, we have carried out a semi-quantitative analysis of the dynamics of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) containing various epigenetic modifications by combining data from imino 1H exchange and imino 1H R1ρ relaxation dispersion NMR experiments in a complementary way. Using this approach, we characterized the base-opening (kopen) and base-closing (kclose) rates, facilitating a comparison of the base-opening and -closing process of dsDNA containing cytosine in different states of epigenetic modification. A particularly striking result is the increase in the kopen rate of hemi-methylated dsDNA 5mC/C relative to unmodified or fully methylated dsDNA, indicating that the Watson-Crick base pairs undergo selective destabilization in 5mC/C. Collectively, our findings imply that the epigenetic modulation of cytosine dynamics in dsDNA mediates destabilization of the GC Watson-Crick base pair to allow base-flipping in living cells.

Structural dynamics of DNA depending on methylation pattern

DNA methylation is associated with a number of biological phenomena, and plays crucial roles in epigenetic regulation of eukaryotic gene expression. It is also suggested that DNA methylation alters the mechanical properties of DNA molecules, which is likely to affect epigenetic regulation. However, it has not been systematically investigated how methylation changes the structural and dynamic features of DNA. In this research, to elucidate the effects of methylation on DNA mechanics, a fully atomic molecular dynamics simulation of double-stranded DNA with several methylation patterns was performed. Through the analysis of the relative positioning of the nucleotides (base-step variables), characteristic changes in terms of local flexibility were observed, which further affected the overall DNA geometry and stiffness. These findings may serve as a basis for a discussion on methylation-dependent DNA dynamics in physiological conditions.

Epigenetic interaction of microbes with their mammalian hosts

The interaction of microbiota with its host has the ability to alter the cellular functions of both, through several mechanisms. Recent work, from many laboratories including our own, has shown that epigenetic mechanisms play an important role in the alteration of these cellular functions. Epigenetics broadly refers to change in the phenotype without a corresponding change in the DNA sequence. This change is usually brought by epigenetic modifications of the DNA itself, the histone proteins associated with the DNA in the chromatin, non-coding RNA or the modifications of the transcribed RNA. These modifications, also known as epigenetic code, do not change the DNA sequence but alter the expression level of specific genes. Microorganisms seem to have learned how to modify the host epigenetic code and modulate the host transcriptome in their favour. In this review, we explore the literature that describes the epigenetic interaction of bacteria, fungi and viruses, with their mammalian hosts.

Degree of N-Methylation of Nucleosides and Metabolites Controls Binding Affinity to Pristine Silica Surfaces

Biological molecules interact with silica (SiO₂) surfaces with binding affinities that greatly vary depending on their physical-chemical properties. However, the quantitative characterization of biological compounds adsorbed on silica surfaces, especially of compounds involved in fast, reversible interactions, has been challenging, and the driving forces are not well understood. Here, we show how carbon-13 NMR spin relaxation provides quantitative atomic-detail information about the transient molecular binding to pristine silica surfaces, represented by colloidally dispersed silica nanoparticles (SNPs). Based on the quantitative analysis of almost two dozen biological molecules, we find that the addition of N-methyl motifs systematically increases molecular binding affinities to silica in a nearly quantitatively predictable manner. Among the studied compounds are methylated nucleosides, which are common in epigenetic signaling in nucleic acids. The quantitative understanding of N-methylation may open up new ways to detect and separate methylated nucleic acids or even regulate their cellular functions.

C1188D mutation abolishes specific recognition between MLL1-CXXC domain and CpG site by inducing conformational switch of flexible N-terminal

Mixed lineage leukemia protein (MLL1 protein) recognizes the CpG site via its CXXC domain and is frequently associated with leukemia. The specific recognition is abolished by C1188D mutation, which also prevents MLL-related leukemia. In this paper, multiple molecular dynamic (MD) simulations were performed to investigate the mechanism of recognition and influences of C1188D mutation. Started from fully dissociated DNA and MLL1-CXXC domain, remarkably, the center of mass (COM) of MLL1-CXXC domain quickly concentrates on the vicinity of the CpG site in all 53 short MD simulations. Extended simulations of the wild type showed that the native complex formed in 500 ns among 4 of 53 simulations. In contrast, the C1188D mutant COM distributed broadly around the DNA and the native complex was not observed in any of the extended simulations. Simulations on the apo MLL1-CXXC domain further suggest that the wild type protein remained predominantly in an open form that closely resembles its structure in the native complex whereas C1188D mutant formed predominantly compact structures in which the N- terminal bends to D1188. This conformational switch hinders the formation of encounter complex, thus abolishes the recognition. Our study also provides clues to the study mechanism of recognition, by the CXXC domain from proteins like DNA methyltransferase and ten-eleven translocation enzymes.

Direct DNA Methylation Profiling with an Electric Biosensor

DNA methylation is one of the principal epigenetic mechanisms that control gene expression in humans, and its profiling provides critical information about health and disease. Current profiling methods require chemical modification of bases followed by sequencing, which is expensive and time-consuming. Here, we report a direct and rapid determination of DNA methylation using an electric biosensor. The device consists of a DNA-tweezer probe integrated on a graphene field-effect transistor for label-free, highly sensitive, and specific methylation profiling. The device performance was evaluated with a target DNA that harbors a sequence of the methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase, a promoter of glioblastoma multiforme, a lethal brain tumor. The results show that we successfully profiled the methylated and nonmethylated forms at picomolar concentrations. Further, fluorescence kinetics and molecular dynamics simulations revealed that the position of the methylation site(s), their proximity, and accessibility to the toe-hold region of the tweezer probe are the primary determinants of the device performance.

A Conformational Switch in the Zinc Finger Protein Kaiso Mediates Differential Readout of Specific and Methylated DNA Sequences

Recognition of the epigenetic mark 5-methylcytosine (mC) at CpG sites in DNA has emerged as a novel function of many eukaryotic transcription factors (TFs). It remains unclear why the sequence specificity of these TFs differs for CpG-methylated motifs and consensus motifs. Here, we dissect the structural and dynamic basis for this differential DNA binding specificity in the human zinc finger TF Kaiso, which exhibits high affinity for two consecutive mCpG sites in variable contexts and also for a longer, sequence-specific Kaiso binding site (KBS). By integrating structural analysis and DNA binding studies with targeted protein mutagenesis and nucleotide substitutions, we identify distinct mechanisms for readout of methylated and KBS motifs by Kaiso. We show that a key glutamate residue (E535), critical for mCpG site recognition, adopts different conformations in complexes with specific and methylated DNA. These conformational differences, together with intrinsic variations in DNA flexibility and/or solvation at TpG versus mCpG sites, contribute to the different DNA affinity and sequence specificity. With methylated DNA, multiple direct contacts between E535 and the 5' mCpG site dominate the binding affinity, allowing for tolerance of different flanking DNA sequences. With KBS, Kaiso employs E535 as part of an indirect screen of the 5' flanking sequence, relying on key tyrosine-DNA interactions to stabilize an optimal DNA conformation and select against noncognate sites. These findings demonstrate how TFs use conformational adaptation and exploit variations in DNA flexibility to achieve distinct DNA readout outcomes and target a greater variety of regulatory and epigenetic sites than previously appreciated.

Approaches to Whole-Genome Methylome Analysis in Plants

Cytosine methylation as a reversible chromatin mark has been investigated extensively for its influence on gene silencing and the regulation of its dynamic association-disassociation at specific sites within a eukaryotic genome. With the remarkable reductions in cost and time associated with whole-genome DNA sequence analysis, coupled with the high fidelity of bisulfite-treated DNA sequencing, single nucleotide resolution of cytosine methylation repatterning within even very large genomes is increasingly achievable. What remains a challenge is the analysis of genome-wide methylome datasets and, consequently, a clear understanding of the overall influence of methylation repatterning on gene expression or vice versa. Reported data have sometimes been subject to stringent data filtering methods that can serve to skew downstream biological interpretation. These complications derive from methylome analysis procedures that vary widely in method and parameter setting. DNA methylation as a chromatin feature that influences DNA stability can be dynamic and rapidly responsive to environmental change. Consequently, methods to discriminate background "noise" of the system from biological signal in response to specific perturbation is essential in some types of experiments. We describe numerous aspects of whole-genome bisulfite sequence data that must be contemplated as well as the various steps of methylome data analysis which impact the biological interpretation of the final output.

DNA Modification Readers and Writers and Their Interplay

Genomic DNA is modified in a postreplicative manner and several modifications, the enzymes responsible for their deposition as well as proteins that read these modifications, have been described. Here, we focus on the impact of DNA modifications on the DNA helix and review the writers and readers of cytosine modifications and how they interplay to shape genome composition, stability, and function.

Toward a Mechanistic Understanding of DNA Methylation Readout by Transcription Factors

Epigenetic DNA modification impacts gene expression, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are only partly understood. Adding a methyl group to a cytosine base locally modifies the structural features of DNA in multiple ways, which may change the interaction with DNA-binding transcription factors (TFs) and trigger a cascade of downstream molecular events. Cells can be probed using various functional genomics assays, but it is difficult to disentangle the confounded effects of DNA modification on TF binding, chromatin accessibility, intranuclear variation in local TF concentration, and rate of transcription. Here we discuss how high-throughput in vitro profiling of protein-DNA interactions has enabled comprehensive characterization and quantification of the methylation sensitivity of TFs. Despite the limited structural data for DNA containing methylated cytosine, automated analysis of structural information in the Protein Data Bank (PDB) shows how 5-methylcytosine (5mC) can be recognized in various ways by amino acid side chains. We discuss how a context-dependent effect of methylation on DNA groove geometry can affect DNA binding by homeodomain proteins and how principled modeling of ChIP-seq data can overcome the confounding that makes the interpretation of in vivo data challenging. The emerging picture is that epigenetic modifications affect TF binding in a highly context-specific manner, with a direction and effect size that depend critically on their position within the TF binding site and the amino acid sequence of the TF. With this improved mechanistic knowledge, we have come closer to understanding how cells use DNA modification to acquire, retain, and change their identity.

Infrared nanospectroscopic mapping of a single metaphase chromosome

The integrity of the chromatin structure is essential to every process occurring within eukaryotic nuclei. However, there are no reliable tools to decipher the molecular composition of metaphase chromosomes. Here, we have applied infrared nanospectroscopy (AFM-IR) to demonstrate molecular difference between eu- and heterochromatin and generate infrared maps of single metaphase chromosomes revealing detailed information on their molecular composition, with nanometric lateral spatial resolution. AFM-IR coupled with principal component analysis has confirmed that chromosome areas containing euchromatin and heterochromatin are distinguishable based on differences in the degree of methylation. AFM-IR distribution of eu- and heterochromatin was compared to standard fluorescent staining. We demonstrate the ability of our methodology to locate spatially the presence of anticancer drug sites in metaphase chromosomes and cellular nuclei. We show that the anticancer 'rule breaker' platinum compound [Pt[N(p-HC6F4)CH2]2py2] preferentially binds to heterochromatin, forming localized discrete foci due to condensation of DNA interacting with the drug. Given the importance of DNA methylation in the development of nearly all types of cancer, there is potential for infrared nanospectroscopy to be used to detect gene expression/suppression sites in the whole genome and to become an early screening tool for malignancy.

How methyl-sugar interactions determine DNA structure and flexibility

The sequence dependent structure and flexibility of the DNA double helix is of key importance for gene expression and DNA packing and it can be modulated by DNA modifications. The presence of a C5′-methyl group in thymine or the frequent C5′-methylated-cytosine affects the DNA fine structure, however, the underlying mechanism and steric origins have remained largely unexplained. Employing Molecular Dynamics free energy simulations that allow switching on or off interactions with the methyl groups in several DNA sequences, we systematically identified the physical origin of the coupling between methyl groups and DNA backbone fine structure. Whereas methyl-solvent and methyl–nucleobase interactions were found to be of minor importance, the methyl group interaction with the 5′ neighboring sugar was identified as main cause for influencing the population of backbone substates. The sterical methyl sugar clash prevents the formation of unconventional stabilizing hydrogen bonds between nucleobase and backbone. The technique was also used to study the contribution of methyl groups to DNA flexibility and served to explain why the presence of methyl sugar clashes in thymine and methyl-cytosine can result in an overall local increase of DNA flexibility.