Conditions that Stabilize Membrane Domains Also Antagonize n-Alcohol Anesthesia

Small-Molecule Modulators of Lipid Raft Stability and Protein-Raft Partitioning

Development of an understanding of membrane nanodomains colloquially known as "lipid rafts" has been hindered by a lack of pharmacological tools to manipulate rafts and protein affinity for rafts. We screened 24,000 small molecules for modulators of the affinity of peripheral myelin protein 22 (PMP22) for rafts in giant plasma membrane vesicles (GPMVs). Hits were counter-screened against another raft protein, MAL, and tested for impact on raft , leading to two classes of compounds. Class I molecules altered the raft affinity of PMP22 and MAL and also reduced raft formation in a protein-dependent manner. Class II molecules modulated raft formation in a protein-independent manner. This suggests independent forces work collectively to stabilize lipid rafts. Both classes of compounds altered membrane fluidity in cells and modulated TRPM8 channel function. These compounds provide new tools for probing lipid raft function in cells and for furthering our understanding of raft biophysics.

Prewetting couples membrane and protein phase transitions to greatly enhance coexistence in models and cells

Both membranes and biopolymers can individually separate into coexisting liquid phases. Here we explore biopolymer prewetting at membranes, a phase transition that emerges when these two thermodynamic systems are coupled. In reconstitution, we couple short poly-L-Lysine and poly-L-Glutamic Acid polyelectrolytes to membranes of saturated lipids, unsaturated lipids, and cholesterol, and detect coexisting prewet and dry surface phases well outside of the region of coexistence for each individual system. Notability, polyelectrolyte prewetting is highly sensitive to membrane lipid composition, occurring at 10 fold lower polymer concentration in a membrane close to its phase transition compared to one without a phase transition. In cells, protein prewetting is achieved using an optogenetic tool that enables titration of condensing proteins and tethering to the plasma membrane inner leaflet. Here we show that protein prewetting occurs for conditions well outside those where proteins condense in the cytoplasm, and that the stability of prewet domains is sensitive to perturbations of plasma membrane composition and structure. Our work presents an example of how thermodynamic phase transitions can impact cellular structure outside their individual coexistence regions, suggesting new possible roles for phase-separation-prone systems in cell biology.

Coupling liquid phases in 3D condensates and 2D membranes: Successes, challenges, and tools

This review describes the major experimental challenges researchers meet when attempting to couple phase separation between membranes and condensates. Although it is well known that phase separation in a 2D membrane could affect molecules capable of forming a 3D condensate (and vice versa), few researchers have quantified the effects to date. The scarcity of these measurements is not due to a lack of intense interest or effort in the field. Rather, it reflects significant experimental challenges in manipulating coupled membranes and condensates to yield quantitative values. These challenges transcend many molecular details, which means they impact a wide range of systems. This review highlights recent exciting successes in the field, and it lays out a comprehensive list of tools that address potential pitfalls for researchers who are considering coupling membranes with condensates.

The Membrane Phase Transition Gives Rise to Responsive Plasma Membrane Structure and Function

Several groups have recently reported evidence for the emergence of domains in cell plasma membranes when membrane proteins are organized by ligand binding or assembly of membrane proximal scaffolds. These domains recruit and retain components that favor the liquid-ordered phase, adding to a decades-old literature interrogating the contribution of membrane phase separation in plasma membrane organization and function. Here we propose that both past and present observations are consistent with a model in which membranes have a high compositional susceptibility, arising from their thermodynamic state in a single phase that is close to a miscibility phase transition. This rigorous framework naturally allows for both transient structure in the form of composition fluctuations and long-lived structure in the form of induced domains. In this way, the biological tuning of plasma membrane composition enables a responsive compositional landscape that facilitates and augments cellular biochemistry vital to plasma membrane functions.

Investigating the cut-off effect of n-alcohols on lipid movement: a biophysical study

Cellular membranes are responsible for absorbing the effects of external perturbants for the cell's survival. Such perturbants include small ubiquitous molecules like n-alcohols which were observed to exhibit anesthetic capabilities, with this effect tapering off at a cut-off alcohol chain length. To explain this cut-off effect and complement prior biochemical studies, we investigated a series of n-alcohols (with carbon lengths 2-18) and their impact on several bilayer properties, including lipid flip-flop, intervesicular exchange, diffusion, membrane bending rigidity and more. To this end, we employed an array of biophysical techniques such as time-resolved small angle neutron scattering (TR-SANS), small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), all atomistic and coarse-grained molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, and calcein leakage assays. At an alcohol concentration of 30 mol% of the overall lipid content, TR-SANS showed 1-hexanol (C6OH) increased transverse lipid diffusion, i.e. flip-flop. As alcohol chain length increased from C6 to C10 and longer, lipid flip-flop slowed by factors of 5.6 to 32.2. Intervesicular lipid exchange contrasted these results with only a slight cut-off at alcohol concentrations of 30 mol% but not 10 mol%. SAXS, MD simulations, and leakage assays revealed changes to key bilayer properties, such as bilayer thickness and fluidity, that correlate well with the effects on lipid flip-flop rates. Finally, we tie our results to a defect-mediated pathway for alcohol-induced lipid flip-flop.

Membrane phase separation drives responsive assembly of receptor signaling domains

Plasma membrane heterogeneity has been tied to a litany of cellular functions and is often explained by analogy to membrane phase separation; however, models based on phase separation alone fall short of describing the rich organization available within cell membranes. Here we present comprehensive experimental evidence motivating an updated model of plasma membrane heterogeneity in which membrane domains assemble in response to protein scaffolds. Quantitative super-resolution nanoscopy measurements in live B lymphocytes detect membrane domains that emerge upon clustering B cell receptors (BCRs). These domains enrich and retain membrane proteins based on their preference for the liquid-ordered phase. Unlike phase-separated membranes that consist of binary phases with defined compositions, membrane composition at BCR clusters is modulated through the protein constituents in clusters and the composition of the membrane overall. This tunable domain structure is detected through the variable sorting of membrane probes and impacts the magnitude of BCR activation.

Remodeling of yeast vacuole membrane lipidomes from the log (one phase) to stationary stage (two phases)

Upon nutrient limitation, budding yeast of Saccharomyces cerevisiae shift from fast growth (the log stage) to quiescence (the stationary stage). This shift is accompanied by liquid-liquid phase separation in the membrane of the vacuole, an endosomal organelle. Recent work indicates that the resulting micrometer-scale domains in vacuole membranes enable yeast to survive periods of stress. An outstanding question is which molecular changes might cause this membrane phase separation. Here, we conduct lipidomics of vacuole membranes in both the log and stationary stages. Isolation of pure vacuole membranes is challenging in the stationary stage, when lipid droplets are in close contact with vacuoles. Immuno-isolation has previously been shown to successfully purify log-stage vacuole membranes with high organelle specificity, but it was not previously possible to immuno-isolate stationary-stage vacuole membranes. Here, we develop Mam3 as a bait protein for vacuole immuno-isolation, and demonstrate low contamination by non-vacuolar membranes. We find that stationary-stage vacuole membranes contain surprisingly high fractions of phosphatidylcholine lipids (∼40%), roughly twice as much as log-stage membranes. Moreover, in the stationary stage, these lipids have higher melting temperatures, due to longer and more saturated acyl chains. Another surprise is that no significant change in sterol content is observed. These lipidomic changes, which are largely reflected on the whole-cell level, fit within the predominant view that phase separation in membranes requires at least three types of molecules to be present: lipids with high melting temperatures, lipids with low melting temperatures, and sterols.

Chemical potential measurements constrain models of cholesterol-phosphatidylcholine interactions

Bilayer membranes composed of cholesterol and phospholipids exhibit diverse forms of nonideal mixing. In particular, many previous studies document macroscopic liquid-liquid phase separation as well as nanometer-scale heterogeneity in membranes of phosphatidylcholine (PC) lipids and cholesterol. Here, we present experimental measurements of cholesterol chemical potential (μc) in binary membranes containing dioleoyl PC (DOPC), 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl PC (POPC), or dipalmitoyl PC (DPPC), and in ternary membranes of DOPC and DPPC, referenced to crystalline cholesterol. μc is the thermodynamic quantity that dictates the availability of cholesterol to bind other factors, and notably must be equal between coexisting phases of a phase separated mixture. It is simply related to concentration under conditions of ideal mixing, but is far from ideal for the majority of lipid mixtures investigated here. Measurements of μc can vary with phospholipid composition by 1.5 kBT at constant cholesterol mole fraction implying a more than fivefold change in its availability for binding receptors and other reactions. Experimental measurements are fit to thermodynamic models including cholesterol-DPPC complexes or pairwise interactions between lipid species to provide intuition about the magnitude of interactions. These findings reinforce that μc depends on membrane composition overall, suggesting avenues for cells to alter the availability of cholesterol without varying cholesterol concentration.

Neuropharmacology of Alcohol Addiction with Special Emphasis on Proteomic Approaches for Identification of Novel Therapeutic Targets

Alcohol is a generic pharmacological agent with only a few recognized primary targets. Nmethyl- D-aspartate, gamma-aminobutyric acid, glycine, 5-hydroxytryptamine 3 (serotonin), nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, and L-type Ca2+ channels and G-protein-activated inwardly rectifying K channels are all involved. Following the first hit of alcohol on specific brain targets, the second wave of indirect effects on various neurotransmitter/neuropeptide systems begins, leading to the typical acute behavioral effects of alcohol, which range from disinhibition to sedation and even hypnosis as alcohol concentrations rise. Recent research has revealed that gene regulation is significantly more complex than previously thought and does not fully explain changes in protein levels. As a result, studying the proteome directly, which differs from the genome/transcriptome in terms of complexity and dynamicity, has provided unique insights into extraordinary advances in proteomic techniques that have changed the way we can analyze the composition, regulation, and function of protein complexes and pathways underlying altered neurobiological conditions. Neuroproteomics has the potential to revolutionize alcohol research by allowing researchers to gain a better knowledge of how alcohol impacts protein structure, function, connections, and networks on a global scale. The amount of information collected from these breakthroughs can aid in identifying valuable biomarkers for early detection and improved prognosis of an alcohol use disorder and future pharmaceutical targets for the treatment of alcoholism.

High-Content Imaging Platform to Discover Chemical Modulators of Plasma Membrane Rafts

Plasma membrane organization profoundly impacts cellular functionality. A well-known mechanism underlying this organization is through nanoscopic clustering of distinct lipids and proteins in membrane rafts. Despite their physiological importance, rafts remain a difficult-to-study aspect of membrane organization, in part because of the paucity of chemical tools to experimentally modulate their properties. Methods to selectively target rafts for therapeutic purposes are also currently lacking. To tackle these problems, we developed a high-throughput screen and an accompanying image analysis pipeline to identify small molecules that enhance or inhibit raft formation. Cell-derived giant plasma membrane vesicles were used as the experimental platform. A proof-of-principle screen using a bioactive lipid library demonstrates that this method is robust and capable of validating established raft modulators including C6- and C8-ceramide, miltefosine, and epigallocatechin gallate as well as identifying new ones. The platform we describe here represents a powerful tool to discover new chemical approaches to manipulate rafts and their components.

Yeast cells actively tune their membranes to phase separate at temperatures that scale with growth temperatures

Phase separation in membranes creates domains enriched in specific components. To date, the best example of micrometer-scale phase separation in the membrane of an unperturbed, living cell occurs in a yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) organelle called the vacuole. Recent studies indicate that the phases are functionally important, enabling yeast survival during periods of stress. We discovered that yeast regulate this phase transition; the temperature at which membrane components mix into a single phase is ∼15 °C above the growth temperature. To maintain this offset, yeast may tune the level of ergosterol (a molecule that is structurally similar to cholesterol) in their membranes. Surprisingly, depleting sterols in vacuole membranes causes them to phase separate, in contrast to previous assumptions.

Membranes of vacuoles, the lysosomal organelles of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (budding yeast), undergo extraordinary changes during the cell’s normal growth cycle. The cycle begins with a stage of rapid cell growth. Then, as glucose becomes scarce, growth slows, and vacuole membranes phase separate into micrometer-scale domains of two liquid phases. Recent studies suggest that these domains promote yeast survival by organizing membrane proteins that play key roles in a central signaling pathway conserved among eukaryotes (TORC1). An outstanding question in the field has been whether cells regulate phase transitions in response to new physical conditions and how this occurs. Here, we measure transition temperatures and find that after an increase of roughly 15 °C, vacuole membranes appear uniform, independent of growth temperature. Moreover, populations of cells grown at a single temperature regulate this transition to occur over a surprisingly narrow temperature range. Remarkably, the transition temperature scales linearly with the growth temperature, demonstrating that the cells physiologically adapt to maintain proximity to the transition. Next, we ask how yeast adjust their membranes to achieve phase separation. We isolate vacuoles from yeast during the rapid stage of growth, when their membranes do not natively exhibit domains. Ergosterol is the major sterol in yeast. We find that domains appear when ergosterol is depleted, contradicting the prevalent assumption that increases in sterol concentration generally cause membrane phase separation in vivo, but in agreement with previous studies using artificial and cell-derived membranes.

Surfactant-free production of biomimetic giant unilamellar vesicles using PDMS-based microfluidics

Microfluidic production of giant lipid vesicles presents a paradigm-shift in the development of artificial cells. While production is high-throughput and the lipid vesicles are mono-disperse compared to bulk methods, current technologies rely heavily on the addition of additives such as surfactants, glycerol and even ethanol. Here we present a microfluidic method for producing biomimetic surfactant-free and additive-free giant unilamellar vesicles. The versatile design allows for the production of vesicle sizes ranging anywhere from ~10 to 130 µm with either neutral or charged lipids, and in physiological buffer conditions. Purity, functionality, and stability of the membranes are validated by lipid diffusion, protein incorporation, and leakage assays. Usability as artificial cells is demonstrated by increasing their complexity, i.e., by encapsulating plasmids, smaller liposomes, mammalian cells, and microspheres. This robust method capable of creating truly biomimetic artificial cells in high-throughput will prove valuable for bottom-up synthetic biology and the understanding of membrane function.

Critical Phenomena in Plasma Membrane Organization and Function

Lateral organization in the plane of the plasma membrane is an important driver of biological processes. The past dozen years have seen increasing experimental support for the notion that lipid organization plays an important role in modulating this heterogeneity. Various biophysical mechanisms rooted in the concept of liquid-liquid phase separation have been proposed to explain diverse experimental observations of heterogeneity in model and cell membranes with distinct but overlapping applicability. In this review, we focus on the evidence for and the consequences of the hypothesis that the plasma membrane is poised near an equilibrium miscibility critical point. Critical phenomena explain certain features of the heterogeneity observed in cells and model systems but also go beyond heterogeneity to predict other interesting phenomena, including responses to perturbations in membrane composition.

Membrane nanodomains homeostasis during propofol anesthesia as function of dosage and temperature

Some anesthetics bind and potentiate γ-aminobutyric-acid-type receptors, but no universal mechanism for general anesthesia is known. Furthermore, often encountered complications such as anesthesia induced amnesia are not understood. General anesthetics are hydrophobic molecules easily dissolving into lipid bilayers. Recently, it was shown that general anesthetics perturb phase separation in vesicles extracted from fixed cells. Unclear is whether under physiological conditions general anesthetics induce perturbation of the lipid bilayer, and whether this contributes to the transient loss of consciousness or anesthesia side effects. Here we show that propofol perturbs lipid nanodomains in the outer and inner leaflet of the plasma membrane in intact cells, affecting membrane nanodomains in a concentration dependent manner: 1 μM to 5 μM propofol destabilize nanodomains; however, propofol concentrations higher than 5 μM stabilize nanodomains with time. Stabilization occurs only at physiological temperature and in intact cells. This process requires ARP2/3 mediated actin nucleation and Myosin II activity. The rate of nanodomain stabilization is potentiated by GABA_A receptor activity. Our results show that active nanodomain homeostasis counteracts the initial disruption causing large changes in cortical actin. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: General anesthesia is a routine medical procedure with few complications, yet a small number of patients experience side-effects that persist for weeks and months. Very young children are at risk for effects on brain development. Elderly patients often exhibit subsequent amnesia. Here, we show that the general anesthetic propofol perturbs the ultrastructure of the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane in intact cells. Initially propofol destabilized lipid nanodomains. However, with increasing incubation time and propofol concentration, the effect is reversed and nanodomains are further stabilized. We show that this stabilization is caused by the activation of the actin cortex under the membrane. These perturbations of membrane bilayer and cortical actin may explain how propofol affects neuronal plasticity at synapses.

Modulation and dynamics of cell membrane heterogeneities

Numerous studies provide evidence that the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane contains lateral nanodomains, and that these are functionally important regulators of transmembrane cell signaling. Depending on their chemical composition and the biophysical mechanism bringing the lipids together, multiple types of nanodomains exist in the inner and the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane bilayer. In intact cells, these domains are smaller than the optical resolution limit of light microscopy and also highly dynamic. Recently, advanced fluorescence methods have provided data to characterize many biophysical and thermodynamic aspects of these nanodomains. In this review, we summarize the physicochemical determinants of nanodomain formation, stability and extent. Then, we detail how these nanodomains play a structural role by anchoring nucleation sites for the membrane cytoskeleton on the lipid bilayer. Further, we review the existing literature on mechanisms that modulate the nanodomain size and stability, both acute and chronic events. We conclude that regulation of the nanodomains distribution in the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane is important for modulation of transmembrane signaling. However, only very few modulators of nanodomain stability and size have been quantified in cells, suggesting interesting directions for future studies.

Effect of alcohol on the phase separation in model membranes

The discovery of coexisting liquid-ordered and liquid-disordered phases in multicomponent lipid bilayers has received widespread attention due to its potential relevance for biological systems. One of the many open questions is how the presence of additional components affects the nature of the coexisting phases. Of particular interest is the addition of alcohols because their anesthetic properties may arise from modulating bilayer behavior. We use coarse-grained Molecular Dynamics simulations to gain insight into the partitioning preferences of linear n-alcohols into ordered and disordered bilayers alongside their effects on local membrane structure. We find that alcohols cause only small changes to membrane composition alongside a lack of significant effects on membrane thickness and lipid tail order. Cholesterol and n-alcohol trans-bilayer motion is measured and found to be near or within the range of previous atomistic results. The cholesterol flip-flop rates increase with both n-alcohol length and concentration for octanol, dodecanol, and hexadecanol, indicating a decrease in lipid order. Umbrella sampling simulations of removing cholesterol from tertiary membranes find no significant difference with or without n-alcohols at various concentrations. Simulations of a phase-separated bilayer show that octanol preferentially partitions into the liquid-disordered phase in a ratio of approximately 3:1 over the liquid-ordered phase. Furthermore, partition coefficients of alcohol in single-phase membranes show a preference for longer alcohols (dodecanol and hexadecanol) to partition preferentially into the liquid-ordered phase, while decreasing the length of the alcohol reverses this trend. Our work tests experimental results while also investigating the ability for coarse-grained MARTINI simulations to capture minute differences in model membrane spatial arrangements on the nanoscale level.

Pressure regulated basis for gene transcription by delta-cell micro-compliance modeled in silico: Biphenyl, bisphenol and small molecule ligand models of cell contraction-expansion

Molecular diameter, lipophilicity and hydrophilicity exclusion affinity limits exist for small molecule carrier-mediated diffusion or transport through channel pores or interaction with the cell surface glycocalyx. The molecular structure lipophilicity limit for non-specific carrier-mediated transmembrane diffusion through polarity-selective transport channels of the cell membrane is L_{external structure} ∙ H_{polar group}^-1 of ≥ 1.07. The cell membrane channel pore size is > 0.752 and < 0.758 nm based on a 3-D ellipsoid model (biphenyl), and within the molecular diameter size range 0.744 and 0.762 nm based on a 2-D elliptical model (alkanol). The adjusted van der Waals diameter (vdWD, adj; nm) for the subset of halogenated vapors is predictive of the required MAC for anesthetic potency at an initial (-) Δ C_micro effect. The molecular structure L ∙ H_{polar group}^-1 for Neu5Ac is 0.080, and the L ∙ H_{polar group}^-1 interval range for the cell surface glycocalyx hydrophilicity barrier interaction is 0.101 (Saxitoxin, Stx; L_{internal structure} ∙ H_{polar group}^-1) - 0.092 (m-xylenediamine, L_{external structure} · H_{polar group}). Differential predictive effective pressure mapping of gene activation or repression reveals that p-dioxin exposure results in activation of AhR-Erβ (Arnt)/Nrf-2, Pparδ, Errγ (LxRα), Dio3 (Dio2) and Trα limbs, and due to high affinity Dio2 and Dio3 (OH-TriCDD, L_ext · H^-1: 1.91–4.31) exothermy-antagonism (Δ contraction) with high affinity T₄/rT₃-TRα-mediated agonism (Δ expansion). co-planar PCB metabolite exposure (L_ext · H^-1: 1.95–3.91) results in activation of AhR (Erα/β)/Nrf2, Rev-Erbβ, Errα, Dio3 (Dio2) and Trα limbs with a Δ C_micro contraction of 0.89 and Δ C_micro expansion of 1.05 as compared to p-dioxin. co-, ortho-planar PCB metabolite exposure results in activation of Car/PxR, Pparα (Srebf1,—Lxrβ), Arnt (AhR-Erβ), AR, Dio1 (Dio2) and Trβ limbs with a Δ C_micro contraction of 0.73 and Δ C_micro expansion of 1.18 (as compared to p-dioxin). Bisphenol A exposure (L_{ext struct} ∙ H^-1: 1.08–1.12, BPA–BPE, Errγ; BPAF, L_{ext struct} ∙ H^-1: 1.23, CM Erα, β) results in increased duration at P_eff for Timm8b (P_eff 0.247) transcription and in indirect activation of the AhR/Nrf-2 hybrid pathway with decreased duration at P_eff 0.200 (Nrf1) and increased duration at P_eff 0.257 (Dffa). The Bpa/Bpaf convergent pathway C_micro contraction-expansion response increase in the lower P_eff interval is 0.040; in comparison, small molecule hormone Δ C_micro contraction-expansion response increases in the lower P_eff intervals for gene expression ≤ 0.168 (Dex· GR) ≥ 0.156 (Dht · AR), with grade of duration at P_eff (min·count) of 1.33x10⁵ (Dex/Cort) and 1.8–2.53x10⁵ (Dht/R1881) as compared to the (-) coupled (+) Δ C_microP_eff to 0.136 (Wnt5a, Esr2) with applied DES (1.86x10⁶). The subtype of trans-differentiated cell as a result of an applied toxin or toxicant is predictable by delta-C_micro determined by P_eff mapping. Study findings offer additional perspective on the basis for pressure regulated gene transcription by alterations in cell micro-compliance (Δ contraction-expansion, C_micro), and are applicable for the further predictive modeling of gene to gene transcription interactions, and small molecule modulation of cell effective pressure (P_eff) and its potential.

Lateral heterogeneity and domain formation in cellular membranes

As early as the development of the fluid mosaic model for cellular membranes, researchers began observing the telltale signs of lateral heterogeneity. Over the decades this has led to the development of the lipid raft hypothesis and the ensuing controversy that has unfolded, as a result. Here, we review the physical concepts behind domain formation in lipid membranes, both of their structural and dynamic origins. This, then leads into a discussion of coarse-grained, phenomenological approaches that describe the wide range of phases associated with lipid lateral heterogeneity. We use these physical concepts to describe the interaction between raft-lipid species, such as long-chain saturated lipids, sphingomyelin, and cholesterol, and non-raft forming lipids, such as those with short acyl chains or unsaturated fatty acids. While debate has persisted on the biological relevance of lipid domains, recent research, described here, continues to identify biological roles for rafts and new experimental approaches have revealed the existence of lipid domains in living systems. Given the recent progress on both the biological and structural aspects of raft formation, the research area of membrane lateral heterogeneity will not only expand, but will continue to produce exciting results.

Improved Characterization of Raft-Mimicking Phase-Separation Phenomena in Lipid Bilayers Using Laurdan Fluorescence with Log-Normal Multipeak Analysis

The study of biomimetic model membrane systems undergoing liquid-ordered (Lo)-liquid-disordered (Ld) phase separation using spectroscopic methods has played an important role in understanding the properties of lipid rafts in plasma membranes. In particular, the membrane-associated fluorescence probe Laurdan has proved to be a very efficient reporter of Lo-Ld phase separation in lipid bilayers using the general polarization (GP) parameter. A limitation of the GP approach is that it monitors only global average packing so that the contribution of each phase remains undetermined. The decomposition of Laurdan emission spectra has been proposed as an additional approach to overcoming this limitation. Here, further developments of this method for the study of Lo-Ld phase separation are described here for Laurdan in sphingomyelin-phosphatidylcholine-cholesterol large unilamellar vesicles. Lipid compositions corresponding to homogeneous Lo or Ld phases as well as undergoing thermally induced Lo-Ld phase separation were investigated. In addition, the occurrence of phase separation was checked by the fluorescence imaging of giant unilamellar vesicles. Decomposition into three log-normal components is used to show that an intermediate energy component is specifically associated with the occurrence of the Lo phase, with a small contribution from this component occurring above the phase-separation temperature being attributable to phase fluctuations. The ratio R_X of the relative area of this intermediate-energy peak to that of the low-energy peak is shown to provide a straightforward index of Lo-Ld phase separation as a function of temperature, which is occasionally more sensitive than GP. It is also shown that R_X can be used in conjunction with GP to gain further insight into Lo-Ld, the phase-separation processes. This latter feature is illustrated by the influence of the alcohol butanol on the Lo-Ld phase separation in sphingomyelin-phosphatidylcholine-cholesterol bilayers by showing that the effect of the alcohol occurs specifically at the onset of the phase separation, indicating a line tension mechanism. It is proposed that the three components of log-normal decomposition approaching Laurdan emission spectra provide a useful improvement for characterizing Lo-Ld phase-separation phenomena.

Ion channels can be allosterically regulated by membrane domains near a de-mixing critical point

Ion channels are embedded in the plasma membrane, a compositionally diverse two-dimensional liquid that has the potential to exert profound influence on their function. Recent experiments suggest that this membrane is poised close to an Ising critical point, below which cell-derived plasma membrane vesicles phase separate into coexisting liquid phases. Related critical points have long been the focus of study in simplified physical systems, but their potential roles in biological function have been underexplored. Here we apply both exact and stochastic techniques to the lattice Ising model to study several ramifications of proximity to criticality for idealized lattice channels, whose function is coupled through boundary interactions to critical fluctuations of membrane composition. Because of diverging susceptibilities of system properties to thermodynamic parameters near a critical point, such a lattice channel's activity becomes strongly influenced by perturbations that affect the critical temperature of the underlying Ising model. In addition, its kinetics acquire a range of time scales from its surrounding membrane, naturally leading to non-Markovian dynamics. Our model may help to unify existing experimental results relating the effects of small-molecule perturbations on membrane properties and ion channel function. We also suggest ways in which the role of this mechanism in regulating real ion channels and other membrane-bound proteins could be tested in the future.

Giant Plasma Membrane Vesicles: An Experimental Tool for Probing the Effects of Drugs and Other Conditions on Membrane Domain Stability

Giant plasma membrane vesicles (GPMVs) are isolated directly from living cells and provide an alternative to vesicles constructed of synthetic or purified lipids as an experimental model system for use in a wide range of assays. GPMVs capture much of the compositional protein and lipid complexity of intact cell plasma membranes, are filled with cytoplasm, and are free from contamination with membranes from internal organelles. GPMVs often exhibit a miscibility transition below the growth temperature of their parent cells. GPMVs labeled with a fluorescent protein or lipid analog appear uniform on the micron-scale when imaged above the miscibility transition temperature, and separate into coexisting liquid domains with differing membrane compositions and physical properties below this temperature. The presence of this miscibility transition in isolated GPMVs suggests that a similar phase-like heterogeneity occurs in intact plasma membranes under growth conditions, albeit on smaller length scales. In this context, GPMVs provide a simple and controlled experimental system to explore how drugs and other environmental conditions alter the composition and stability of phase-like domains in intact cell membranes. This chapter describes methods to generate and isolate GPMVs from adherent mammalian cells and to interrogate their miscibility transition temperatures using fluorescence microscopy.

Remodelling of primary human CD4+ T cell plasma membrane order by n-3 PUFA

Cell membrane fatty acids influence fundamental properties of the plasma membrane, including membrane fluidity, protein functionality, and lipid raft signalling. Evidence suggests that dietary n-3 PUFA may target the plasma membrane of immune cells by altering plasma membrane lipid dynamics, thereby regulating the attenuation of immune cell activation and suppression of inflammation. As lipid-based immunotherapy might be a promising new clinical strategy for the treatment of inflammatory disorders, we conducted in vitro and in vivo experiments to examine the effects of n-3 PUFA on CD4+ T cell membrane order, mitochondrial bioenergetics and lymphoproliferation. n-3 PUFA were incorporated into human primary CD4+ T cells phospholipids in vitro in a dose-dependent manner, resulting in a reduction in whole cell membrane order, oxidative phosphorylation and proliferation. At higher doses, n-3 PUFA induced unique phase separation in T cell-derived giant plasma membrane vesicles. Similarly, in a short-term human pilot study, supplementation of fish oil (4 g n-3 PUFA/d) for 6 weeks in healthy subjects significantly elevated EPA (20 : 5n-3) levels in CD4+ T cell membrane phospholipids, and reduced membrane lipid order. These results demonstrate that the dynamic reshaping of human CD4+ T cell plasma membrane organisation by n-3 PUFA may modulate down-stream clonal expansion.

The Effect of Solutes on the Temperature of Miscibility Transitions in Multicomponent Membranes

We address questions posed by experiments that show small-chain alcohols reduce the miscibility transition temperature when added to giant plasma membrane vesicles (GPMVs), but increase that temperature when added to giant unilamellar vesicles. In giant unilamellar vesicles the change in temperature displays a definite minimum, between decanol and tetradecanol, as a function of alcohol chain length; in GPMVs there is no such minimum. To emphasize the competition between internal entropies of the components and the interactions between them, we model the system as consisting of three different linear polymers. Two of them are the constituents of a liquid, one that can undergo a miscibility transition. To this liquid is added the third polymer component, which represents the short-chain alcohol. We show that, within Flory-Huggins theory, the addition of alcohol causes an increase or decrease of the miscibility transition temperature depending upon the competition of two effects. The first is the dilution of the interactions between the two components of the liquid caused by the introduction of the alcohol. This tends to lower the transition temperature. The second effect is the preferential partitioning of the alcohol into one phase of the liquid or the other. This tends to raise the transition temperature irrespective of which phase the alcohol prefers. This second effect is the smallest, and the decrease in transition temperature the largest, when the alcohol partitions equally between the two phases. Such equal partitioning occurs when the effect of the entropic excluded volume interactions (which cause the alcohol to prefer one phase) just balances the effect of the direct interactions, which cause it to prefer the other. These results allow us to make several predictions, and to propose an explanation for the different behavior of the transition temperature in GPMVs and giant unilamellar vesicles that results from the addition of alcohols.

n-Alcohol Length Governs Shift in Lo-Ld Mixing Temperatures in Synthetic and Cell-Derived Membranes

A persistent challenge in membrane biophysics has been to quantitatively predict how membrane physical properties change upon addition of new amphiphiles (e.g., lipids, alcohols, peptides, or proteins) in order to assess whether the changes are large enough to plausibly result in biological ramifications. Because of their roles as general anesthetics, n-alcohols are perhaps the best-studied amphiphiles of this class. When n-alcohols are added to model and cell membranes, changes in membrane parameters tend to be modest. One striking exception is found in the large decrease in liquid-liquid miscibility transition temperatures (Tmix) observed when short-chain n-alcohols are incorporated into giant plasma membrane vesicles (GPMVs). Coexisting liquid-ordered and liquid-disordered phases are observed at temperatures below Tmix in GPMVs as well as in giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) composed of ternary mixtures of a lipid with a low melting temperature, a lipid with a high melting temperature, and cholesterol. Here, we find that when GUVs of canonical ternary mixtures are formed in aqueous solutions of short-chain n-alcohols (n ≤ 10), Tmix increases relative to GUVs in water. This shift is in the opposite direction from that reported for cell-derived GPMVs. The increase in Tmix is robust across GUVs of several types of lipids, ratios of lipids, types of short-chain n-alcohols, and concentrations of n-alcohols. However, as chain lengths of n-alcohols increase, nonmonotonic shifts in Tmix are observed. Alcohols with chain lengths of 10-14 carbons decrease Tmix in ternary GUVs of dioleoyl-PC/dipalmitoyl-PC/cholesterol, whereas 16 carbons increase Tmix again. Gray et al. observed a similar influence of the length of n-alcohols on the direction of the shift in Tmix. These results are consistent with a scenario in which the relative partitioning of n-alcohols between liquid-ordered and liquid-disordered phases evolves as the chain length of the n-alcohol increases.

Divergent effects of anesthetics on lipid bilayer properties and sodium channel function

General anesthetics revolutionized medicine by allowing surgeons to perform more complex and much longer procedures. This widely used class of drugs is essential to patient care, yet their exact molecular mechanism(s) are incompletely understood. One early hypothesis over a century ago proposed that nonspecific interactions of anesthetics with the lipid bilayer lead to changes in neuronal function via effects on membrane properties. This model was supported by the Meyer-Overton correlation between anesthetic potency and lipid solubility and despite more recent evidence for specific protein targets, in particular ion-channels, lipid bilayer-mediated effects of anesthetics is still under debate. We therefore tested a wide range of chemically diverse general anesthetics on lipid bilayer properties using a sensitive and functional gramicidin-based assay. None of the tested anesthetics altered lipid bilayer properties at clinically relevant concentrations. Some anesthetics did affect the bilayer, though only at high supratherapeutic concentrations, which are unlikely relevant for clinical anesthesia. These results suggest that anesthetics directly interact with membrane proteins without altering lipid bilayer properties at clinically relevant concentrations. Voltage-gated Na⁺ channels are potential anesthetic targets and various isoforms are inhibited by a wide range of volatile anesthetics. They inhibit channel function by reducing peak Na⁺ current and shifting steady-state inactivation toward more hyperpolarized potentials. Recent advances in crystallography of prokaryotic Na⁺ channels, which are sensitive to volatile anesthetics, together with molecular dynamics simulations and electrophysiological studies will help identify potential anesthetic interaction sites within the channel protein itself.

Miscibility Transition Temperature Scales with Growth Temperature in a Zebrafish Cell Line

Cells can alter the lipid content of their plasma membranes upon changes in their environment to maintain and adjust membrane function. Recent work suggests that some membrane functions arise because cellular plasma membranes are poised close to a miscibility transition under growth conditions. Here we report experiments utilizing giant plasma membrane vesicles (GPMVs) to explore how membrane transition temperature varies with growth temperature in a zebrafish cell line (ZF4) that can be adapted for growth between 20 and 32°C. We find that GPMV transition temperatures adjust to be 16.7 ± 1.2°C below growth temperature for four growth temperatures investigated and that adjustment occurs over roughly 2 days when temperature is abruptly lowered from 28 to 20°C. We also find that GPMVs have slightly different lipidomes when isolated from cells adapted for growth at 28 and 20°C. Similar to past work in vesicles derived from mammalian cells, fluctuating domains are observed in ZF4-derived GPMVs, consistent with their having critical membrane compositions. Taken together, these experimental results suggest that cells in culture biologically tune their membrane composition in a way that maintains specific proximity to a critical miscibility transition.

Clinical concentrations of chemically diverse general anesthetics minimally affect lipid bilayer properties

General anesthetics have revolutionized medicine by facilitating invasive procedures, and have thus become essential drugs. However, detailed understanding of their molecular mechanisms remains elusive. A mechanism proposed over a century ago involving unspecified interactions with the lipid bilayer known as the unitary lipid-based hypothesis of anesthetic action, has been challenged by evidence for direct anesthetic interactions with a range of proteins, including transmembrane ion channels. Anesthetic concentrations in the membrane are high (10-100 mM), however, and there is no experimental evidence ruling out a role for the lipid bilayer in their ion channel effects. A recent hypothesis proposes that anesthetic-induced changes in ion channel function result from changes in bilayer lateral pressure that arise from partitioning of anesthetics into the bilayer. We examined the effects of a broad range of chemically diverse general anesthetics and related nonanesthetics on lipid bilayer properties using an established fluorescence assay that senses drug-induced changes in lipid bilayer properties. None of the compounds tested altered bilayer properties sufficiently to produce meaningful changes in ion channel function at clinically relevant concentrations. Even supra-anesthetic concentrations caused minimal bilayer effects, although much higher (toxic) concentrations of certain anesthetic agents did alter lipid bilayer properties. We conclude that general anesthetics have minimal effects on bilayer properties at clinically relevant concentrations, indicating that anesthetic effects on ion channel function are not bilayer-mediated but rather involve direct protein interactions.

Protein sorting by lipid phase-like domains supports emergent signaling function in B lymphocyte plasma membranes

Diverse cellular signaling events, including B cell receptor (BCR) activation, are hypothesized to be facilitated by domains enriched in specific plasma membrane lipids and proteins that resemble liquid-ordered phase-separated domains in model membranes. This concept remains controversial and lacks direct experimental support in intact cells. Here, we visualize ordered and disordered domains in mouse B lymphoma cell membranes using super-resolution fluorescence localization microscopy, demonstrate that clustered BCR resides within ordered phase-like domains capable of sorting key regulators of BCR activation, and present a minimal, predictive model where clustering receptors leads to their collective activation by stabilizing an extended ordered domain. These results provide evidence for the role of membrane domains in BCR signaling and a plausible mechanism of BCR activation via receptor clustering that could be generalized to other signaling pathways. Overall, these studies demonstrate that lipid mediated forces can bias biochemical networks in ways that broadly impact signal transduction.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.19891.001

Membranes made of molecules called lipids surround every living cell to protect the cell's contents. Cells also communicate with the outside environment via their membranes. Proteins in the membrane receive information from the environment and trigger signaling pathways inside the cell to relay this information to the center of cell. The way in which proteins are organized on the membrane has a major influence on their signaling activity.

Some areas of the membrane are more crowded with certain lipids and signaling proteins than others. Lipid and protein molecules of particular types can come together and form distinct areas called “ordered” and “disordered” domains. The lipids in ordered domains are more tightly packed than disordered domains and it is thought that this difference allows domains to selectively exclude or include certain proteins. Ordered domains are also known as "lipid rafts". Lipid rafts and disordered domains may help cells to control the activities of signaling pathways, however, technical limitations have made it difficult to study the roles of these domains.

The membranes surrounding immune cells called B cells contain a protein called the B cell receptor, which engages with proteins from microbes and other foreign invaders. When the B cell receptor binds to a foreign protein it forms clusters with other B cell receptors and becomes active, triggering a signaling pathway that leads to immune responses.

Stone, Shelby et al. examined lipid rafts and disordered domains in B cells from mice using a technique called super-resolution fluorescence microscopy. The results show that clusters of B cell receptors are present within lipid rafts. These clusters made the lipid rafts larger and more stable. A protein that is needed during the early stages of B cell receptor signaling was also found in the same lipid rafts. Another protein that terminates signaling was excluded because it prefers disordered domains. Together, this provides a local environment in certain areas of the membrane that favors receptor activity and supports the subsequent immune response.

Future work is needed to understand how cells control the make-up of lipids and proteins within their membranes, and how defects in this regulation can alter signaling activity and lead to disease.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.19891.002

Shift in membrane miscibility transition temperature upon addition of short-chain alcohols

I consider the effect of a small concentration of a molecule, such as a short-chain alcohol, on the miscibility transition temperature of a giant plasma membrane vesicle. For concentrations sufficiently small such that the system can be treated as a dilute solution, the change in transition temperature is known to depend upon the extent of the molecule's partition into the coexisting liquid-disordered and liquid-ordered phases. Preferential partitioning into the former decreases the miscibility temperature, while preferential partitioning into the latter causes an increase. The analysis, combined with calculated values of the partition coefficient of saturated chains, illuminates the results of recent experiments on the change in miscibility transition temperatures with changing alcohol chain length, and makes several testable predictions.

Roles of Interleaflet Coupling and Hydrophobic Mismatch in Lipid Membrane Phase-Separation Kinetics

Characterizing the nanoscale dynamic organization within lipid bilayer membranes is central to our understanding of cell membranes at a molecular level. We investigate phase separation and communication across leaflets in ternary lipid bilayers, including saturated lipids with between 12 and 20 carbons per tail. Coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations reveal a novel two-step kinetics due to hydrophobic mismatch, in which the initial response of the apposed leaflets upon quenching is to increase local asymmetry (antiregistration), followed by dominance of symmetry (registration) as the bilayer equilibrates. Antiregistration can become thermodynamically preferred if domain size is restricted below ∼20 nm, with implications for the symmetry of rafts and nanoclusters in cell membranes, which have similar reported sizes. We relate our findings to theory derived from a semimicroscopic model in which the leaflets experience a “direct” area-dependent coupling, and an “indirect” coupling that arises from hydrophobic mismatch and is most important at domain boundaries. Registered phases differ in composition from antiregistered phases, consistent with a direct coupling between the leaflets. Increased hydrophobic mismatch purifies the phases, suggesting that it contributes to the molecule-level lipid immiscibility. Our results demonstrate an interplay of competing interleaflet couplings that affect phase compositions and kinetics, and lead to a length scale that can influence lateral and transverse bilayer organization within cells.

The Continuing Mystery of Lipid Rafts

Since its initial formalization nearly 20 years ago, the concept of lipid rafts has generated a tremendous amount of attention and interest and nearly as much controversy. The controversy is perhaps surprising because the notion itself is intuitive: compartmentalization in time and space is a ubiquitous theme at all scales of biology, and therefore, the partitioning of cellular membranes into lateral subdivision should be expected. Nevertheless, the physicochemical principles responsible for compartmentalization and the molecular mechanisms by which they are functionalized remain nearly as mysterious today as they were two decades ago. Herein, we review recent literature on this topic with a specific focus on the major open questions in the field including: (1) what are the best tools to assay raft behavior in living membranes? (2) what is the function of the complex lipidome of mammalian cells with respect to membrane organization? (3) what are the mechanisms that drive raft formation and determine their properties? (4) how can rafts be modulated? (5) how is membrane compartmentalization integrated into cellular signaling? Despite decades of intensive research, this compelling field remains full of fundamental questions.