1
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Odell J, Lammerding J. N-terminal tags impair the ability of lamin A to provide structural support to the nucleus. J Cell Sci 2024; 137:jcs262207. [PMID: 39092499 PMCID: PMC11361635 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.262207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 07/29/2024] [Indexed: 08/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Lamins are intermediate filament proteins that contribute to numerous cellular functions, including nuclear morphology and mechanical stability. The N-terminal head domain of lamin is crucial for higher order filament assembly and function, yet the effects of commonly used N-terminal tags on lamin function remain largely unexplored. Here, we systematically studied the effect of two differently sized tags on lamin A (LaA) function in a mammalian cell model engineered to allow for precise control of expression of tagged lamin proteins. Untagged, FLAG-tagged and GFP-tagged LaA completely rescued nuclear shape defects when expressed at similar levels in lamin A/C-deficient (Lmna-/-) MEFs, and all LaA constructs prevented increased nuclear envelope ruptures in these cells. N-terminal tags, however, altered the nuclear localization of LaA and impaired the ability of LaA to restore nuclear deformability and to recruit emerin to the nuclear membrane in Lmna-/- MEFs. Our finding that tags impede some LaA functions but not others might explain the partial loss of function phenotypes when tagged lamins are expressed in model organisms and should caution researchers using tagged lamins to study the nucleus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Odell
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Graduate Field of Biochemistry, Molecular and Cell Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Jan Lammerding
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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2
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Odell J, Lammerding J. N-terminal tags impair the ability of Lamin A to provide structural support to the nucleus. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.19.590311. [PMID: 39211210 PMCID: PMC11361184 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.19.590311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
Lamins are intermediate filament proteins that contribute to numerous cellular functions, including nuclear morphology and mechanical stability. The N-terminal head domain of lamin is critical for higher order filament assembly and function, yet the effects of commonly used N-terminal tags on lamin function remain largely unexplored. Here, we systematically studied the effect of two differently sized tags on Lamin A (LaA) function in a mammalian cell model engineered to allow for precise control of expression of tagged lamin proteins. Untagged, FLAG-tagged, and GFP-tagged LaA completely rescued nuclear shape defects when expressed at similar levels in lamin A/C-deficient ( Lmna -/- ) MEFs, and all LaA constructs prevented increased nuclear envelope (NE) ruptures in these cells. N-terminal tags, however, altered the nuclear localization of LaA and impaired the ability of LaA to restore nuclear deformability and to recruit Emerin to the nuclear membrane in Lmna -/- MEFs. Our finding that tags impede some LaA functions but not others may explain the partial loss of function phenotypes when tagged lamins are expressed in model organisms and should caution researchers using tagged lamins to study the nucleus.
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3
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Gunn AL, Yashchenko AI, Dubrulle J, Johnson J, Hatch EM. A high-content screen reveals new regulators of nuclear membrane stability. Sci Rep 2024; 14:6013. [PMID: 38472343 PMCID: PMC10933478 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-56613-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Nuclear membrane rupture is a physiological response to multiple in vivo processes, such as cell migration, that can cause extensive genome instability and upregulate invasive and inflammatory pathways. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of rupture are unclear and few regulators have been identified. In this study, we developed a reporter that is size excluded from re-compartmentalization following nuclear rupture events. This allows for robust detection of factors influencing nuclear integrity in fixed cells. We combined this with an automated image analysis pipeline in a high-content siRNA screen to identify new proteins that both increase and decrease nuclear rupture frequency in cancer cells. Pathway analysis identified an enrichment of nuclear membrane and ER factors in our hits and we demonstrate that one of these, the protein phosphatase CTDNEP1, is required for nuclear stability. Analysis of known rupture determinants, including an automated quantitative analysis of nuclear lamina gaps, are consistent with CTDNEP1 acting independently of actin and nuclear lamina organization. Our findings provide new insights into the molecular mechanism of nuclear rupture and define a highly adaptable program for rupture analysis that removes a substantial barrier to new discoveries in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L Gunn
- Divisions of Basic Sciences and Human Biology, The Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Artem I Yashchenko
- Divisions of Basic Sciences and Human Biology, The Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Julien Dubrulle
- Cellular Imaging Shared Resource, The Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jodiene Johnson
- Divisions of Basic Sciences and Human Biology, The Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Graduate Program, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Emily M Hatch
- Divisions of Basic Sciences and Human Biology, The Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA.
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4
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Berg IK, Currey ML, Gupta S, Berrada Y, Nguyen BV, Pho M, Patteson AE, Schwarz JM, Banigan EJ, Stephens AD. Transcription inhibition suppresses nuclear blebbing and rupture independently of nuclear rigidity. J Cell Sci 2023; 136:jcs261547. [PMID: 37756607 PMCID: PMC10660790 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.261547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Chromatin plays an essential role in the nuclear mechanical response and determining nuclear shape, which maintain nuclear compartmentalization and function. However, major genomic functions, such as transcription activity, might also impact cell nuclear shape via blebbing and rupture through their effects on chromatin structure and dynamics. To test this idea, we inhibited transcription with several RNA polymerase II inhibitors in wild-type cells and perturbed cells that presented increased nuclear blebbing. Transcription inhibition suppressed nuclear blebbing for several cell types, nuclear perturbations and transcription inhibitors. Furthermore, transcription inhibition suppressed nuclear bleb formation, bleb stabilization and bleb-based nuclear ruptures. Interestingly, transcription inhibition did not alter the histone H3 lysine 9 (H3K9) modification state, nuclear rigidity, and actin compression and contraction, which typically control nuclear blebbing. Polymer simulations suggested that RNA polymerase II motor activity within chromatin could drive chromatin motions that deform the nuclear periphery. Our data provide evidence that transcription inhibition suppresses nuclear blebbing and rupture, in a manner separate and distinct from chromatin rigidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel K. Berg
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
- Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Marilena L. Currey
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Sarthak Gupta
- Department of Physics and BioInspired Syracuse, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA
| | - Yasmin Berrada
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Bao V. Nguyen
- Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Mai Pho
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Alison E. Patteson
- Department of Physics and BioInspired Syracuse, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA
| | - J. M. Schwarz
- Department of Physics and BioInspired Syracuse, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA
- Indian Creek Farm, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Edward J. Banigan
- Institute of Medical Engineering & Science and Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Andrew D. Stephens
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
- Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
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5
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Jung-Garcia Y, Maiques O, Monger J, Rodriguez-Hernandez I, Fanshawe B, Domart MC, Renshaw MJ, Marti RM, Matias-Guiu X, Collinson LM, Sanz-Moreno V, Carlton JG. LAP1 supports nuclear adaptability during constrained melanoma cell migration and invasion. Nat Cell Biol 2023; 25:108-119. [PMID: 36624187 PMCID: PMC9859759 DOI: 10.1038/s41556-022-01042-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Metastasis involves dissemination of cancer cells away from a primary tumour and colonization at distal sites. During this process, the mechanical properties of the nucleus must be tuned since they pose a challenge to the negotiation of physical constraints imposed by the microenvironment and tissue structure. We discovered increased expression of the inner nuclear membrane protein LAP1 in metastatic melanoma cells, at the invasive front of human primary melanoma tumours and in metastases. Human cells express two LAP1 isoforms (LAP1B and LAP1C), which differ in their amino terminus. Here, using in vitro and in vivo models that recapitulate human melanoma progression, we found that expression of the shorter isoform, LAP1C, supports nuclear envelope blebbing, constrained migration and invasion by allowing a weaker coupling between the nuclear envelope and the nuclear lamina. We propose that LAP1 renders the nucleus highly adaptable and contributes to melanoma aggressiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaiza Jung-Garcia
- Organelle Dynamics Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK.,Sanz-Moreno Group, Centre for the Tumour Microenvironment, Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, John Vane Science Building, Charterhouse Square, London, UK.,Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, London, UK.,Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Oscar Maiques
- Sanz-Moreno Group, Centre for the Tumour Microenvironment, Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, John Vane Science Building, Charterhouse Square, London, UK.,Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Joanne Monger
- Sanz-Moreno Group, Centre for the Tumour Microenvironment, Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, John Vane Science Building, Charterhouse Square, London, UK
| | - Irene Rodriguez-Hernandez
- Sanz-Moreno Group, Centre for the Tumour Microenvironment, Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, John Vane Science Building, Charterhouse Square, London, UK.,Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Bruce Fanshawe
- Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Marie-Charlotte Domart
- Electron Microscopy Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Matthew J Renshaw
- Advanced Light Microscopy Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Rosa M Marti
- Department of Dermatology, Hospital Universitari Arnau de Vilanova, University of Lleida, IRB Lleida, CIBERONC, Lleida, Spain
| | - Xavier Matias-Guiu
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Genetics, Hospital Universitari Arnau de Vilanova, University of Lleida, IRB Lleida, CIBERONC, Lleida, Spain
| | - Lucy M Collinson
- Electron Microscopy Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Victoria Sanz-Moreno
- Sanz-Moreno Group, Centre for the Tumour Microenvironment, Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, John Vane Science Building, Charterhouse Square, London, UK. .,Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King's College London, London, UK.
| | - Jeremy G Carlton
- Organelle Dynamics Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK. .,Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, London, UK.
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6
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Deviri D, Safran SA. Balance of osmotic pressures determines the nuclear-to-cytoplasmic volume ratio of the cell. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2118301119. [PMID: 35580183 PMCID: PMC9173802 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2118301119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The volume of the cell nucleus varies across cell types and species and is commonly thought to be determined by the size of the genome and degree of chromatin compaction. However, this notion has been challenged over the years by much experimental evidence. Here, we consider the physical condition of mechanical force balance as a determining condition of the nuclear volume and use quantitative, order-of-magnitude analysis to estimate the forces from different sources of nuclear and cytoplasmic pressure. Our estimates suggest that the dominant pressure within the nucleus and cytoplasm of nonstriated muscle cells originates from the osmotic pressure of proteins and RNA molecules that are localized to the nucleus or cytoplasm by out-of-equilibrium, active nucleocytoplasmic transport rather than from chromatin or its associated ions. This motivates us to formulate a physical model for the ratio of the cell and nuclear volumes in which osmotic pressures of localized proteins determine the relative volumes. In accordance with unexplained observations that are a century old, our model predicts that the ratio of the cell and nuclear volumes is a constant, robust to a wide variety of biochemical and biophysical manipulations, and is changed only if gene expression or nucleocytoplasmic transport is modulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Deviri
- Department of Chemical and Biological Physics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovet 76100, Israel
| | - Samuel A. Safran
- Department of Chemical and Biological Physics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovet 76100, Israel
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7
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Abstract
Cells generate and sense mechanical forces that trigger biochemical signals to elicit cellular responses that control cell fate changes. Mechanical forces also physically distort neighboring cells and the surrounding connective tissue, which propagate mechanochemical signals over long distances to guide tissue patterning, organogenesis, and adult tissue homeostasis. As the largest and stiffest organelle, the nucleus is particularly sensitive to mechanical force and deformation. Nuclear responses to mechanical force include adaptations in chromatin architecture and transcriptional activity that trigger changes in cell state. These force-driven changes also influence the mechanical properties of chromatin and nuclei themselves to prevent aberrant alterations in nuclear shape and help maintain genome integrity. This review will discuss principles of nuclear mechanotransduction and chromatin mechanics and their role in DNA damage and cell fate regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yekaterina A Miroshnikova
- Helsinki Institute of Life Science, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
- Wihuri Research Institute, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00290, Finland
- Stem Cells and Metabolism Research Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne 50931, Germany
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Sara A Wickström
- Helsinki Institute of Life Science, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
- Wihuri Research Institute, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00290, Finland
- Stem Cells and Metabolism Research Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne 50931, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Cologne 50931, Germany
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8
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Deviri D, Safran SA. Physical theory of biological noise buffering by multicomponent phase separation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2100099118. [PMID: 34135122 PMCID: PMC8237649 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2100099118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Maintaining homeostasis is a fundamental characteristic of living systems. In cells, this is contributed to by the assembly of biochemically distinct organelles, many of which are not membrane bound but form by the physical process of liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS). By analogy with LLPS in binary solutions, cellular LLPS was hypothesized to contribute to homeostasis by facilitating "concentration buffering," which renders the local protein concentration within the organelle robust to global variations in the average cellular concentration (e.g., due to expression noise). Interestingly, concentration buffering was experimentally measured in vivo in a simple organelle with a single solute, while it was observed not to be obeyed in one with several solutes. Here, we formulate theoretically and solve analytically a physical model of LLPS in a ternary solution of two solutes (ϕ and ψ) that interact both homotypically (ϕ-ϕ attractions) and heterotypically (ϕ-ψ attractions). Our physical theory predicts how the coexisting concentrations in LLPS are related to expression noise and thus, generalizes the concept of concentration buffering to multicomponent systems. This allows us to reconcile the seemingly contradictory experimental observations. Furthermore, we predict that incremental changes of the homotypic and heterotypic interactions among the molecules that undergo LLPS, such as those that are caused by mutations in the genes encoding the proteins, may increase the efficiency of concentration buffering of a given system. Thus, we hypothesize that evolution may optimize concentration buffering as an efficient mechanism to maintain LLPS homeostasis and suggest experimental approaches to test this in different systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Deviri
- Department of Chemical and Biological Physics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovet 76100, Israel
| | - Samuel A Safran
- Department of Chemical and Biological Physics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovet 76100, Israel
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9
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Srivastava N, Nader GPDF, Williart A, Rollin R, Cuvelier D, Lomakin A, Piel M. Nuclear fragility, blaming the blebs. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2021; 70:100-108. [PMID: 33662810 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2021.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Although textbook pictures depict the cell nucleus as a simple ovoid object, it is now clear that it adopts a large variety of shapes in tissues. When cells deform, because of cell crowding or migration through dense matrices, the nucleus is subjected to large constraints that alter its shape. In this review, we discuss recent studies related to nuclear fragility, focusing on the surprising finding that the nuclear envelope can form blebs. Contrary to the better-known plasma membrane blebs, nuclear blebs are unstable and almost systematically lead to nuclear envelope opening and uncontrolled nucleocytoplasmic mixing. They expand, burst, and repair repeatedly when the nucleus is strongly deformed. Although blebs are a major source of nuclear instability, they are poorly understood so far, which calls for more in-depth studies of these structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nishit Srivastava
- Institut Curie and Institut Pierre Gilles de Gennes, PSL Research University, CNRS, UMR 144, Paris, France
| | | | - Alice Williart
- Institut Curie and Institut Pierre Gilles de Gennes, PSL Research University, CNRS, UMR 144, Paris, France
| | - Romain Rollin
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, CNRS, UMR 168, Paris France
| | - Damien Cuvelier
- Institut Curie and Institut Pierre Gilles de Gennes, PSL Research University, CNRS, UMR 144, Paris, France
| | - Alexis Lomakin
- St. Anna Children's Cancer Research Institute, Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Rare and Undiagnosed Diseases, And Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Matthieu Piel
- Institut Curie and Institut Pierre Gilles de Gennes, PSL Research University, CNRS, UMR 144, Paris, France.
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10
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Sapra KT, Qin Z, Dubrovsky-Gaupp A, Aebi U, Müller DJ, Buehler MJ, Medalia O. Nonlinear mechanics of lamin filaments and the meshwork topology build an emergent nuclear lamina. Nat Commun 2020; 11:6205. [PMID: 33277502 PMCID: PMC7718915 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-20049-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The nuclear lamina—a meshwork of intermediate filaments termed lamins—is primarily responsible for the mechanical stability of the nucleus in multicellular organisms. However, structural-mechanical characterization of lamin filaments assembled in situ remains elusive. Here, we apply an integrative approach combining atomic force microscopy, cryo-electron tomography, network analysis, and molecular dynamics simulations to directly measure the mechanical response of single lamin filaments in three-dimensional meshwork. Endogenous lamin filaments portray non-Hookean behavior – they deform reversibly at a few hundred picoNewtons and stiffen at nanoNewton forces. The filaments are extensible, strong and tough similar to natural silk and superior to the synthetic polymer Kevlar®. Graph theory analysis shows that the lamin meshwork is not a random arrangement of filaments but exhibits small-world properties. Our results suggest that lamin filaments arrange to form an emergent meshwork whose topology dictates the mechanical properties of individual filaments. The quantitative insights imply a role of meshwork topology in laminopathies. Mechanical strength of in situ assembled nuclear lamin filaments arranged in a 3D meshwork is unclear. Here, using mechanical, structural and simulation tools, the authors report the hierarchical organization of the lamin meshwork that imparts strength and toughness to lamin filaments at par with silk and Kevlar®
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Affiliation(s)
- K Tanuj Sapra
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland. .,Department of Biosystems Science and Bioengineering, ETH Zurich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Zhao Qin
- Laboratory for Atomistic and Molecular Mechanics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.,Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, 13244, USA
| | - Anna Dubrovsky-Gaupp
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ueli Aebi
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, CH-4056, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Daniel J Müller
- Department of Biosystems Science and Bioengineering, ETH Zurich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Markus J Buehler
- Laboratory for Atomistic and Molecular Mechanics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Ohad Medalia
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland.
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11
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Mukherjee A, Barai A, Singh RK, Yan W, Sen S. Nuclear plasticity increases susceptibility to damage during confined migration. PLoS Comput Biol 2020; 16:e1008300. [PMID: 33035221 PMCID: PMC7577492 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Large nuclear deformations during migration through confined spaces have been associated with nuclear membrane rupture and DNA damage. However, the stresses associated with nuclear damage remain unclear. Here, using a quasi-static plane strain finite element model, we map evolution of nuclear shape and stresses during confined migration of a cell through a deformable matrix. Plastic deformation of the nucleus observed for a cell with stiff nucleus transiting through a stiffer matrix lowered nuclear stresses, but also led to kinking of the nuclear membrane. In line with model predictions, transwell migration experiments with fibrosarcoma cells showed that while nuclear softening increased invasiveness, nuclear stiffening led to plastic deformation and higher levels of DNA damage. In addition to highlighting the advantage of nuclear softening during confined migration, our results suggest that plastic deformations of the nucleus during transit through stiff tissues may lead to bending-induced nuclear membrane disruption and subsequent DNA damage. Stiffness of the nucleus is known to impede migration of cells through dense matrices. Nuclear translocation through small pores is achieved by active deformation of the nucleus by the cytoskeleton. However, stresses on the nucleus during confined migration may lead to nuclear damage, as observed experimentally. However, the factors contributing to nuclear damage remain incompletely understood. Here we show that plastic or permanent nuclear deformation which is necessary for successful migration through small pores in stiff matrices, also leads to bending of the nuclear membrane. We propose that this bending precedes nuclear blebs which are experimentally observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhishek Mukherjee
- IITB-Monash Research Academy, IIT Bombay, Mumbai, India
- Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Bombay, Mumbai, India
- Dept. of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Amlan Barai
- Dept. of Biosciences & Bioengineering, IIT Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | | | - Wenyi Yan
- Dept. of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- * E-mail: (WY); (SS)
| | - Shamik Sen
- Dept. of Biosciences & Bioengineering, IIT Bombay, Mumbai, India
- * E-mail: (WY); (SS)
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12
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Abstract
The nuclear envelope is often depicted as a static barrier that regulates access between the nucleus and the cytosol. However, recent research has identified many conditions in cultured cells and in vivo in which nuclear membrane ruptures cause the loss of nuclear compartmentalization. These conditions include some that are commonly associated with human disease, such as migration of cancer cells through small spaces and expression of nuclear lamin disease mutations in both cultured cells and tissues undergoing nuclear migration. Nuclear membrane ruptures are rapidly repaired in the nucleus but persist in nuclear compartments that form around missegregated chromosomes called micronuclei. This review summarizes what is known about the mechanisms of nuclear membrane rupture and repair in both the main nucleus and micronuclei, and highlights recent work connecting the loss of nuclear integrity to genome instability and innate immune signaling. These connections link nuclear membrane rupture to complex chromosome alterations, tumorigenesis, and laminopathy etiologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Maciejowski
- Molecular Biology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA;
| | - Emily M Hatch
- Division of Basic Sciences and Human Biology, The Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA;
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13
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Nuclear mechanosensing: mechanism and consequences of a nuclear rupture. Mutat Res 2020; 821:111717. [PMID: 32810711 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2020.111717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The physical connections between the cytoskeletal system and the nucleus provide a route for the nucleus to sense the mechanical stress both inside and outside of the cell. Failure to withstand such stress leads to nuclear rupture, which is observed in human diseases. In this review, we will go through the recent findings and our current understandings of nuclear rupture. Starting with the triggers of nuclear rupture, including the aberrant nuclear lamina composition and the elevated actomyosin contractility. We will also discuss the role of ESCRT-III in nuclear rupture repair and the biological consequences of nuclear rupture, including the negative impacts on cellular compartmentalization, DNA damage, and cellular differentiation. Recent studies on nuclear rupture provide further insights into the direct mechanistic link between nuclear rupture and several pathological conditions. Such knowledge can guide us in developing potential therapeutic solutions for the patients.
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14
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Abstract
During closed mitosis in fission yeast, growing microtubules push onto the nuclear envelope to deform it, which results in fission into two daughter nuclei. The resistance of the envelope to bending, quantified by the flexural stiffness, helps determine the microtubule-dependent nuclear shape transformations. Computational models of envelope mechanics have assumed values of the flexural stiffness of the envelope based on simple scaling arguments. The validity of these estimates is in doubt, however, owing to the complex structure of the nuclear envelope. Here, we performed computational analysis of the bending of the nuclear envelope under applied force using a model that accounts for envelope geometry. Our calculations show that the effective bending modulus of the nuclear envelope is an order of magnitude larger than a single membrane and approximately five times greater than the nuclear lamina. This large bending modulus is in part due to the 45 nm separation between the two membranes, which supports larger bending moments in the structure. Further, the effective bending modulus is highly sensitive to the geometry of the nuclear envelope, ranging from twofold to an order magnitude larger than the corresponding single membrane. These results suggest that spatial variations in geometry and mechanical environment of the envelope may cause a spatial distribution of flexural stiffness in the same nucleus. Overall, our calculations support the possibility that the nuclear envelope may balance significant mechanical stresses in yeast and in cells from higher organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashutosh Agrawal
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204
| | - Tanmay P Lele
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
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15
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Hobson CM, Stephens AD. Modeling of Cell Nuclear Mechanics: Classes, Components, and Applications. Cells 2020; 9:E1623. [PMID: 32640571 PMCID: PMC7408412 DOI: 10.3390/cells9071623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell nuclei are paramount for both cellular function and mechanical stability. These two roles of nuclei are intertwined as altered mechanical properties of nuclei are associated with altered cell behavior and disease. To further understand the mechanical properties of cell nuclei and guide future experiments, many investigators have turned to mechanical modeling. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of mechanical modeling of cell nuclei with an emphasis on the role of the nuclear lamina in hopes of spurring future growth of this field. The goal of this review is to provide an introduction to mechanical modeling techniques, highlight current applications to nuclear mechanics, and give insight into future directions of mechanical modeling. There are three main classes of mechanical models-schematic, continuum mechanics, and molecular dynamics-which provide unique advantages and limitations. Current experimental understanding of the roles of the cytoskeleton, the nuclear lamina, and the chromatin in nuclear mechanics provide the basis for how each component is subsequently treated in mechanical models. Modeling allows us to interpret assay-specific experimental results for key parameters and quantitatively predict emergent behaviors. This is specifically powerful when emergent phenomena, such as lamin-based strain stiffening, can be deduced from complimentary experimental techniques. Modeling differences in force application, geometry, or composition can additionally clarify seemingly conflicting experimental results. Using these approaches, mechanical models have informed our understanding of relevant biological processes such as migration, nuclear blebbing, nuclear rupture, and cell spreading and detachment. There remain many aspects of nuclear mechanics for which additional mechanical modeling could provide immediate insight. Although mechanical modeling of cell nuclei has been employed for over a decade, there are still relatively few models for any given biological phenomenon. This implies that an influx of research into this realm of the field has the potential to dramatically shape both future experiments and our current understanding of nuclear mechanics, function, and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chad M. Hobson
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Andrew D. Stephens
- Biology Department, The University of Massachusetts at Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
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16
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Deviri D, Safran SA. Equilibrium size distribution and phase separation of multivalent, molecular assemblies in dilute solution. SOFT MATTER 2020; 16:5458-5469. [PMID: 32484171 DOI: 10.1039/c9sm02408e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Multivalent molecules can bind a limited number of multiple neighbors via specific interactions. In this paper, we investigate theoretically the self-assembly and phase separation of such molecules in dilute solution. We show that the equilibrium size (n) distributions of linear or branched assemblies qualitatively differ; the former decays exponentially with the relative size n/N[combining macron] (N[combining macron] = n), while the latter decays as a power law, with an exponential cutoff only for n ⪆ N[combining macron]2 ≫ N[combining macron]. In some cases, finite, branched assemblies are unstable and show a sol-gel transition at a critical concentration. In dilute solutions, non-specific interactions result in phase separation, whose critical point is described by an effective Flory Huggins theory that is sensitive to the nature of these distributions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Deviri
- Department of Chemical and Biological Physics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.
| | - Samuel A Safran
- Department of Chemical and Biological Physics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.
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17
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Nuclear failure, DNA damage, and cell cycle disruption after migration through small pores: a brief review. Essays Biochem 2019; 63:569-577. [PMID: 31366473 DOI: 10.1042/ebc20190007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
In many contexts of development, regeneration, or disease such as cancer, a cell squeezes through a dense tissue or a basement membrane, constricting its nucleus. Here, we describe how the severity of nuclear deformation depends on a nucleus' mechanical properties that are mostly determined by the density of chromatin and by the nuclear lamina. We explain how constriction-induced nuclear deformation affects nuclear contents by causing (i) local density changes in chromatin and (ii) rupture of the nuclear lamina and envelope. Both processes mislocalize diffusible nuclear factors including key DNA repair and regulatory proteins. Importantly, these effects of constricted migration are accompanied by excess DNA damage, marked by phosphorylated histone γH2AX in fixed cells. Rupture has a number of downstream consequences that include a delayed cell cycle-consistent with a damage checkpoint-and modulation of differentiation, both of which are expected to affect migration-dependent processes ranging from wound healing to tumorigenic invasion.
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18
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Pfeifer CR, Irianto J, Discher DE. Nuclear Mechanics and Cancer Cell Migration. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1146:117-130. [PMID: 31612457 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-17593-1_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
As a cancer cell invades adjacent tissue, penetrates a basement membrane barrier, or squeezes into a blood capillary, its nucleus can be greatly constricted. Here, we examine: (1) the passive and active deformation of the nucleus during 3D migration; (2) the nuclear structures-namely, the lamina and chromatin-that govern nuclear deformability; (3) the effect of large nuclear deformation on DNA and nuclear factors; and (4) the downstream consequences of mechanically stressing the nucleus. We focus especially on recent studies showing that constricted migration causes nuclear envelope rupture and excess DNA damage, leading to cell cycle suppression, possibly cell death, and ultimately it seems to heritable genomic variation. We first review the latest understanding of nuclear dynamics during cell migration, and then explore the functional effects of nuclear deformation, especially in relation to genome integrity and potentially cancerous mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte R Pfeifer
- Biophysical Engineering Labs: Molecular & Cell Biophysics and NanoBio-Polymers, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jerome Irianto
- Biophysical Engineering Labs: Molecular & Cell Biophysics and NanoBio-Polymers, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Dennis E Discher
- Biophysical Engineering Labs: Molecular & Cell Biophysics and NanoBio-Polymers, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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19
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Laghmach R, Di Pierro M, Potoyan DA. Mesoscale Liquid Model of Chromatin Recapitulates Nuclear Order of Eukaryotes. Biophys J 2019; 118:2130-2140. [PMID: 31623887 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2019.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Revised: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The nuclear envelope segregates the genome of Eukaryota from the cytoplasm. Within the nucleus, chromatin is further compartmentalized into architectures that change throughout the lifetime of the cell. Epigenetic patterns along the chromatin polymer strongly correlate with chromatin compartmentalization and, accordingly, also change during the cell life cycle and at differentiation. Recently, it has been suggested that subnuclear chromatin compartmentalization might result from a process of liquid-liquid phase separation orchestrated by the epigenetic marking and operated by proteins that bind to chromatin. Here, we translate these observations into a diffuse interface model of chromatin, which we named the mesoscale liquid model of nucleus. Using this streamlined continuum model of the genome, we study the large-scale rearrangements of chromatin that happen at different stages of the growth and senescence of the cell and during nuclear inversion events. In particular, we investigate the role of droplet diffusion, fluctuations, and heterochromatin-lamina interactions during nuclear remodeling. Our results indicate that the physical process of liquid-liquid phase separation, together with surface effects, is sufficient to recapitulate much of the large-scale morphology and dynamics of chromatin along the life cycle of cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rabia Laghmach
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
| | - Michele Di Pierro
- Center for Theoretical Biological Physics, Rice University, Houston, Texas
| | - Davit A Potoyan
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa; Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Program, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa.
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20
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Abstract
Cellular nuclei are bound by two uniformly separated lipid membranes that are fused with each other at numerous donut-shaped pores. These membranes are structurally supported by an array of distinct proteins with distinct mechanical functions. As a result, the nuclear envelope possesses unique mechanical properties, which enables it to resist cytoskeletal forces. Here, we review studies that are beginning to provide quantitative insights into nuclear membrane mechanics. We discuss how the mechanical properties of the fused nuclear membranes mediate their response to mechanical forces exerted on the nucleus and how structural reinforcement by different nuclear proteins protects the nuclear membranes against rupture. We also highlight some open questions in nuclear envelope mechanics, and discuss their relevance in the context of health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashutosh Agrawal
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Tanmay P Lele
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
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21
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Stephens AD, Banigan EJ, Marko JF. Chromatin's physical properties shape the nucleus and its functions. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2019; 58:76-84. [PMID: 30889417 PMCID: PMC6692209 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2019.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 02/06/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The cell nucleus encloses, organizes, and protects the genome. Chromatin maintains nuclear mechanical stability and shape in coordination with lamins and the cytoskeleton. Abnormal nuclear shape is a diagnostic marker for human diseases, and it can cause nuclear dysfunction. Chromatin mechanics underlies this link, as alterations to chromatin and its physical properties can disrupt or rescue nuclear shape. The cell can regulate nuclear shape through mechanotransduction pathways that sense and respond to extracellular cues, thus modulating chromatin compaction and rigidity. These findings reveal how chromatin's physical properties can regulate cellular function and drive abnormal nuclear morphology and dysfunction in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Stephens
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, United States.
| | - Edward J Banigan
- Institute for Medical Engineering and Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - John F Marko
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, United States; Department of Physics and Astronomy, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, United States.
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22
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Zhang Q, Tamashunas AC, Agrawal A, Torbati M, Katiyar A, Dickinson RB, Lammerding J, Lele TP. Local, transient tensile stress on the nuclear membrane causes membrane rupture. Mol Biol Cell 2019; 30:899-906. [PMID: 30566037 PMCID: PMC6589786 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e18-09-0604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Revised: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer cell migration through narrow constrictions generates compressive stresses on the nucleus that deform it and cause rupture of nuclear membranes. Nuclear membrane rupture allows uncontrolled exchange between nuclear and cytoplasmic contents. Local tensile stresses can also cause nuclear deformations, but whether such deformations are accompanied by nuclear membrane rupture is unknown. Here we used a direct force probe to locally deform the nucleus by applying a transient tensile stress to the nuclear membrane. We found that a transient (∼0.2 s) deformation (∼1% projected area strain) in normal mammary epithelial cells (MCF-10A cells) was sufficient to cause rupture of the nuclear membrane. Nuclear membrane rupture scaled with the magnitude of nuclear deformation and the magnitude of applied tensile stress. Comparison of diffusive fluxes of nuclear probes between wild-type and lamin-depleted MCF-10A cells revealed that lamin A/C, but not lamin B2, protects the nuclear membranes against rupture from tensile stress. Our results suggest that transient nuclear deformations typically caused by local tensile stresses are sufficient to cause nuclear membrane rupture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiao Zhang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
| | - Andrew C. Tamashunas
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
| | - Ashutosh Agrawal
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204
| | - Mehdi Torbati
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204
| | - Aditya Katiyar
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
| | - Richard B. Dickinson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
| | - Jan Lammerding
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology and Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - Tanmay P. Lele
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
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23
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Fantastic nuclear envelope herniations and where to find them. Biochem Soc Trans 2018; 46:877-889. [PMID: 30026368 DOI: 10.1042/bst20170442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Revised: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Morphological abnormalities of the bounding membranes of the nucleus have long been associated with human diseases from cancer to premature aging to neurodegeneration. Studies over the past few decades support that there are both cell intrinsic and extrinsic factors (e.g. mechanical force) that can lead to nuclear envelope 'herniations', a broad catch-all term that reveals little about the underlying molecular mechanisms that contribute to these morphological defects. While there are many genetic perturbations that could ultimately change nuclear shape, here, we focus on a subset of nuclear envelope herniations that likely arise as a consequence of disrupting physiological nuclear membrane remodeling pathways required to maintain nuclear envelope homeostasis. For example, stalling of the interphase nuclear pore complex (NPC) biogenesis pathway and/or triggering of NPC quality control mechanisms can lead to herniations in budding yeast, which are remarkably similar to those observed in human disease models of early-onset dystonia. By also examining the provenance of nuclear envelope herniations associated with emerging nuclear autophagy and nuclear egress pathways, we will provide a framework to help understand the molecular pathways that contribute to nuclear deformation.
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24
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Houthaeve G, Robijns J, Braeckmans K, De Vos WH. Bypassing Border Control: Nuclear Envelope Rupture in Disease. Physiology (Bethesda) 2018; 33:39-49. [DOI: 10.1152/physiol.00029.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Revised: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent observations in laminopathy patient cells and cancer cells have revealed that the nuclear envelope (NE) can transiently rupture during interphase. NE rupture leads to an uncoordinated exchange of nuclear and cytoplasmic material, thereby deregulating cellular homeostasis. Moreover, concurrently inflicted DNA damage could prime rupture-prone cells for genome instability. Thus, NE rupture may represent a novel pathogenic mechanism that has far-reaching consequences for cell and organism physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaëlle Houthaeve
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Laboratory of Cell Biology and Histology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Joke Robijns
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Laboratory of Cell Biology and Histology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Kevin Braeckmans
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Centre for Nano- and Biophotonics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Winnok H. De Vos
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Laboratory of Cell Biology and Histology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Cell Systems and Imaging Research Group (CSI), Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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