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Stern‐Mentch N, Bostwick GW, Belenky M, Moroz L, Hochner B. Neurotransmission and neuromodulation systems in the learning and memory network of Octopus vulgaris. J Morphol 2022; 283:557-584. [PMID: 35107842 PMCID: PMC9303212 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The vertical lobe (VL) in the octopus brain plays an essential role in its sophisticated learning and memory. Early anatomical studies suggested that the VL is organized in a "fan-out fan-in" connectivity matrix comprising only three morphologically identified neuron types; input axons from the median superior frontal lobe (MSFL) innervating en passant millions of small amacrine interneurons (AMs), which converge sharply onto large VL output neurons (LNs). Recent physiological studies confirmed the feedforward excitatory connectivity; a glutamatergic synapse at the first MSFL-to-AM synaptic layer and a cholinergic AM-to-LNs synapse. MSFL-to-AMs synapses show a robust hippocampal-like activity-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP) of transmitter release. 5-HT, octopamine, dopamine and nitric oxide modulate short- and long-term VL synaptic plasticity. Here, we present a comprehensive histolabeling study to better characterize the neural elements in the VL. We generally confirmed glutamatergic MSFLs and cholinergic AMs. Intense labeling for NOS activity in the AMs neurites were in-line with the NO-dependent presynaptic LTP mechanism at the MSFL-to-AM synapse. New discoveries here reveal more heterogeneity of the VL neurons than previously thought. GABAergic AMs suggest a subpopulation of inhibitory interneurons in the first input layer. Clear γ-amino butyric acid labeling in the cell bodies of LNs supported an inhibitory VL output, yet the LNs co-expressed FMRFamide-like neuropeptides, suggesting an additional neuromodulatory role of the VL output. Furthermore, a group of LNs was glutamatergic. A new cluster of cells organized as a "deep nucleus" showed rich catecholaminergic labeling and may play a role in intrinsic neuromodulation. In-situ hybridization and immunolabeling allowed characterization and localization of a rich array of neuropeptides and neuromodulators, likely involved in reward/punishment signals. This analysis of the fast transmission system, together with the newly found cellular elements, help integrate behavioral, physiological, pharmacological and connectome findings into a more comprehensive understanding of an efficient learning and memory network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naama Stern‐Mentch
- Department of Neurobiology, Silberman Institute of Life SciencesHebrew UniversityJerusalemIsrael
| | - Gabrielle Winters Bostwick
- Department of Neuroscience and McKnight Brain Institute, and Whitney Laboratory for Marine BioscienceUniversity of FloridaGainesvilleFloridaUSA
- Ocean Genome Atlas ProjectSan FranciscoUSA
| | - Michael Belenky
- Department of Neurobiology, Silberman Institute of Life SciencesHebrew UniversityJerusalemIsrael
| | - Leonid Moroz
- Department of Neuroscience and McKnight Brain Institute, and Whitney Laboratory for Marine BioscienceUniversity of FloridaGainesvilleFloridaUSA
| | - Binyamin Hochner
- Department of Neurobiology, Silberman Institute of Life SciencesHebrew UniversityJerusalemIsrael
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Deryckere A, Seuntjens E. The Cephalopod Large Brain Enigma: Are Conserved Mechanisms of Stem Cell Expansion the Key? Front Physiol 2018; 9:1160. [PMID: 30246785 PMCID: PMC6110919 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Within the clade of mollusks, cephalopods have developed an unusually large and complex nervous system. The increased complexity of the cephalopod centralized "brain" parallels an amazing amount of complex behaviors that culminate in one order, the octopods. The mechanisms that enable evolution of expanded brains in invertebrates remain enigmatic. While expression mapping of known molecular pathways demonstrated the conservation of major neurogenesis pathways and revealed neurogenic territories, it did not explain why cephalopods could massively increase their brain size compared to other mollusks. Such an increase is reminiscent of the expansion of the cerebral cortex in mammalians, which have enlarged their number and variety of neurogenic stem cells. We hypothesize that similar mechanisms might be at play in cephalopods and that focusing on the stem cell biology of cephalopod neurogenesis and genetic innovations might be smarter strategies to uncover the mechanism that has driven cephalopod brain expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eve Seuntjens
- Laboratory of Developmental Neurobiology, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Ponte G, Sykes AV, Cooke GM, Almansa E, Andrews PLR. The Digestive Tract of Cephalopods: Toward Non-invasive In vivo Monitoring of Its Physiology. Front Physiol 2017; 8:403. [PMID: 28674501 PMCID: PMC5474479 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 05/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Ensuring the health and welfare of animals in research is paramount, and the normal functioning of the digestive tract is essential for both. Here we critically assess non- or minimally-invasive techniques which may be used to assess a cephalopod's digestive tract functionality to inform health monitoring. We focus on: (i) predatory response as an indication of appetitive drive; (ii) body weight assessment and interpretation of deviations (e.g., digestive gland weight loss is disproportionate to body weight loss in starvation); (iii) oro-anal transit time requiring novel, standardized techniques to facilitate comparative studies of species and diets; (iv) defecation frequency and analysis of fecal color (diet dependent) and composition (parasites, biomarkers, and cytology); (v) digestive tract endoscopy, but passage of the esophagus through the brain is a technical challenge; (vi) high resolution ultrasound that offers the possibility of imaging the morphology of the digestive tract (e.g., food distribution, indigestible residues, obstruction) and recording contractile activity; (vii) needle biopsy (with ultrasound guidance) as a technique for investigating digestive gland biochemistry and pathology without the death of the animal. These techniques will inform the development of physiologically based assessments of health and the impact of experimental procedures. Although intended for use in the laboratory they are equally applicable to cephalopods in public display and aquaculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Ponte
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton DohrnNaples, Italy.,Association for Cephalopod Research (CephRes)Naples, Italy
| | - Antonio V Sykes
- Centro de Ciências do Mar do Algarve (CCMAR), Universidade do AlgarveFaro, Portugal
| | - Gavan M Cooke
- Department of Life Sciences, Anglia Ruskin UniversityCambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Eduardo Almansa
- Centro Oceanográfico de Canarias, Instituto Español de OceanografíaSanta Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | - Paul L R Andrews
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton DohrnNaples, Italy.,Association for Cephalopod Research (CephRes)Naples, Italy
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Fiorito G, Affuso A, Basil J, Cole A, de Girolamo P, D'Angelo L, Dickel L, Gestal C, Grasso F, Kuba M, Mark F, Melillo D, Osorio D, Perkins K, Ponte G, Shashar N, Smith D, Smith J, Andrews PLR. Guidelines for the Care and Welfare of Cephalopods in Research -A consensus based on an initiative by CephRes, FELASA and the Boyd Group. Lab Anim 2016; 49:1-90. [PMID: 26354955 DOI: 10.1177/0023677215580006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
This paper is the result of an international initiative and is a first attempt to develop guidelines for the care and welfare of cephalopods (i.e. nautilus, cuttlefish, squid and octopus) following the inclusion of this Class of ∼700 known living invertebrate species in Directive 2010/63/EU. It aims to provide information for investigators, animal care committees, facility managers and animal care staff which will assist in improving both the care given to cephalopods, and the manner in which experimental procedures are carried out. Topics covered include: implications of the Directive for cephalopod research; project application requirements and the authorisation process; the application of the 3Rs principles; the need for harm-benefit assessment and severity classification. Guidelines and species-specific requirements are provided on: i. supply, capture and transport; ii. environmental characteristics and design of facilities (e.g. water quality control, lighting requirements, vibration/noise sensitivity); iii. accommodation and care (including tank design), animal handling, feeding and environmental enrichment; iv. assessment of health and welfare (e.g. monitoring biomarkers, physical and behavioural signs); v. approaches to severity assessment; vi. disease (causes, prevention and treatment); vii. scientific procedures, general anaesthesia and analgesia, methods of humane killing and confirmation of death. Sections covering risk assessment for operators and education and training requirements for carers, researchers and veterinarians are also included. Detailed aspects of care and welfare requirements for the main laboratory species currently used are summarised in Appendices. Knowledge gaps are highlighted to prompt research to enhance the evidence base for future revision of these guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graziano Fiorito
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, Napoli, Italy Association for Cephalopod Research 'CephRes', Italy
| | - Andrea Affuso
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, Napoli, Italy Animal Model Facility - BIOGEM S.C.A.R.L., Ariano Irpino (AV), Italy
| | - Jennifer Basil
- Biology Department, Brooklyn College - CUNY Graduate Center, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Alison Cole
- Association for Cephalopod Research 'CephRes', Italy
| | - Paolo de Girolamo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions - University of Naples Federico II, Napoli, Italy AISAL - Associazione Italiana per le Scienze degli Animali da Laboratorio, Milano, Italy
| | - Livia D'Angelo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions - University of Naples Federico II, Napoli, Italy AISAL - Associazione Italiana per le Scienze degli Animali da Laboratorio, Milano, Italy
| | - Ludovic Dickel
- Groupe mémoire et Plasticité comportementale, University of Caen Basse-Normandy, Caen, France
| | - Camino Gestal
- Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas (IIM-CSIC), Vigo, Spain
| | - Frank Grasso
- BioMimetic and Cognitive Robotics, Department of Psychology, Brooklyn College - CUNY, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Michael Kuba
- Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Felix Mark
- Integrative Ecophysiology, Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Daniela Melillo
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, Napoli, Italy
| | - Daniel Osorio
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Sussex, UK
| | - Kerry Perkins
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Sussex, UK
| | | | - Nadav Shashar
- Department of Life Sciences, Eilat Campus, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer, Sheva, Israel
| | - David Smith
- FELASA, Federation for Laboratory Animal Science Associations
| | | | - Paul L R Andrews
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, St George's University of London, London, UK Association for Cephalopod Research 'CephRes', Italy
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Fiorito G, Affuso A, Anderson DB, Basil J, Bonnaud L, Botta G, Cole A, D'Angelo L, De Girolamo P, Dennison N, Dickel L, Di Cosmo A, Di Cristo C, Gestal C, Fonseca R, Grasso F, Kristiansen T, Kuba M, Maffucci F, Manciocco A, Mark FC, Melillo D, Osorio D, Palumbo A, Perkins K, Ponte G, Raspa M, Shashar N, Smith J, Smith D, Sykes A, Villanueva R, Tublitz N, Zullo L, Andrews P. Cephalopods in neuroscience: regulations, research and the 3Rs. INVERTEBRATE NEUROSCIENCE 2014; 14:13-36. [PMID: 24385049 PMCID: PMC3938841 DOI: 10.1007/s10158-013-0165-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2013] [Accepted: 11/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Cephalopods have been utilised in neuroscience research for more than 100 years particularly because of their phenotypic plasticity, complex and centralised nervous system, tractability for studies of learning and cellular mechanisms of memory (e.g. long-term potentiation) and anatomical features facilitating physiological studies (e.g. squid giant axon and synapse). On 1 January 2013, research using any of the about 700 extant species of "live cephalopods" became regulated within the European Union by Directive 2010/63/EU on the "Protection of Animals used for Scientific Purposes", giving cephalopods the same EU legal protection as previously afforded only to vertebrates. The Directive has a number of implications, particularly for neuroscience research. These include: (1) projects will need justification, authorisation from local competent authorities, and be subject to review including a harm-benefit assessment and adherence to the 3Rs principles (Replacement, Refinement and Reduction). (2) To support project evaluation and compliance with the new EU law, guidelines specific to cephalopods will need to be developed, covering capture, transport, handling, housing, care, maintenance, health monitoring, humane anaesthesia, analgesia and euthanasia. (3) Objective criteria need to be developed to identify signs of pain, suffering, distress and lasting harm particularly in the context of their induction by an experimental procedure. Despite diversity of views existing on some of these topics, this paper reviews the above topics and describes the approaches being taken by the cephalopod research community (represented by the authorship) to produce "guidelines" and the potential contribution of neuroscience research to cephalopod welfare.
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Bardou I, Leprince J, Chichery R, Vaudry H, Agin V. Vasopressin/oxytocin-related peptides influence long-term memory of a passive avoidance task in the cuttlefish, Sepia officinalis. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2010; 93:240-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2009.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2009] [Revised: 10/14/2009] [Accepted: 10/20/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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