The possible anti-seizure properties of Klotho

α-Klotho regulates mouse embryonic neural stem cell proliferation and differentiation

A longevity factor α-Klotho has been shown to be neuroprotective and enhance brain function. However, it has not been elucidated whether α-Klotho is involved in the embryonic brain development. To address this, we investigated whether α-Klotho regulates embryonic neural stem cell proliferation and differentiation. We found that α-Klotho is expressed in the mouse embryonic brain and neural stem cells isolated from the embryonic day 13.5 brains. When α-Klotho was knocked down in the embryonic neural stem cells, basal level of apoptosis increased while proliferation decreased. Overexpression of membrane-bound or secreted form of α-Klotho promoted proliferation of the mouse embryonic neural stem cells. Knockdown of α-Klotho suppressed the phosphorylation of Akt and ERK, suggesting that α-Klotho may promote neural stem cell survival and proliferation by activating signaling pathway involving Akt and ERK. In addition, knockdown of α-Klotho suppressed differentiation of embryonic neural stem cells into neurons or oligodendrocytes but not astrocytes. These results suggest that α-Klotho may have a role in neuronal development by promoting neural stem cell survival, proliferation and differentiation.

Neuroprotective effect of naringin by modulation of klotho and HMGB1- TLR4 axis in PTZ-induced kindling in mice

BACKGROUND

Naringin has demonstrated various neuroprotective effects; however, its anti-inflammatory and cognitive properties, particularly through the regulation of HMGB1-TLR4 and Klotho, have not been explored in the context of epilepsy.

METHOD

Kindling was induced in Swiss albino mice by administering pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) 25 mg/kg intraperitoneally (i.p.). Naringin (40 mg/kg and 80 mg/kg) was administered orally for 6 weeks. The severity of seizures was assessed using the Racine scale. Cognitive function was evaluated by measuring step-down latency and transfer latency. The levels of GABA, glutamate, IL-1β, IL-1R1, IL-6, HMGB1, TLR4, TNF-α, Klotho, and ADAM-10 were quantified using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) techniques.

RESULTS

Naringin significantly attenuated PTZ-induced seizures at both doses (p < 0.01 for 40 mg/kg; p < 0.0001 for 80 mg/kg) compared to the PTZ group. Additionally, it enhanced retention latency in both step-down latency (p < 0.01 for 40 mg/kg; p < 0.0001 for 80 mg/kg) and transfer latency (p < 0.05 for both doses) compared to the PTZ group. Furthermore, it increased Klotho and ADAM-10 levels in both the hippocampus and cortex (p < 0.01 for 40 mg/kg; p < 0.001 for 80 mg/kg, respectively). Levels of HMGB1, TLR4, and pro-inflammatory cytokines were significantly decreased in both the hippocampus and cortex compared to the PTZ group.

CONCLUSION

Naringin exhibited anti-epileptic effects by regulating neurotransmitter levels and preventing PTZ-induced kindling. Additionally, it demonstrated neuroprotective effects on cognition and attenuated neuroinflammation. These findings suggest that naringin may be a potential therapeutic agent for epilepsy-associated cognitive dysfunction, warranting further studies for clinical translation.

The possible antioxidative effects of ketogenic diet by modifying brain klotho expression: a rat model study

Objectives: The ketogenic diet (KD) has long been used as an alternative nonpharmacological therapy to manage pharmacoresistant epilepsy. The anticonvulsant mechanisms of KD have yet to be fully elucidated. The present study explored whether a KD could exert antioxidative effects by altering brain Klotho (Kl) gene expression.Methods: Thirty male rats were divided into three groups: the normal diet (ND) group received standard rat chow; the calorie-restricted diet (CRD) group was maintained at 90% of the calculated energy need; and the KD group received a diet composed of 8% protein, 2% carbohydrates, and 90% fat (per calorie macronutrient). The levels of β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) in the serum, Kl gene expression in the brain, and Kl protein, malondialdehyde (MDA), and protein carbonyl (PC) levels in the serum and brain were evaluated by standard methods.Results: The serum BHB levels in the KD group were significantly greater than those in the ND and CRD groups (p < 0.001). The Kl expression in the brain was significantly greater in the KD group than in the ND group (p = 0.028). The brain MDA levels in the KD group were significantly lower than those in the ND group (p = 0.006). Elevated BHB was positively correlated with brain Kl expression (r = 0.668, p < 0.001). The brain MDA levels were negatively correlated with brain Kl expression (r = -0.531, p = 0.003) and serum BHB levels (r = 0.472, p = 0.020).Discussion: KD might exert antioxidative effects by increasing BHB and upregulating Kl in the brain. This could be considered a possible anticonvulsant mechanism of KD.

Comparative evaluation of cigarette smoke and a heated tobacco product on microglial toxicity, oxidative stress and inflammatory response

BACKGROUND

Tobacco smoking is the leading cause of preventable death and disease worldwide, with over 8 million annual deaths attributed to cigarette smoking. This study investigates the impact of cigarette smoke and heated tobacco products (HTPs) on microglial function, focusing on toxicological profiles, inflammatory responses, and oxidative stress using ISO standard and clinically relevant conditions of exposure.

METHODS

We assessed cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, lipid peroxidation, mitochondrial function, unfolded protein response, and inflammation in human microglial cells (HMC3) exposed to cigarette smoke, HTP aerosol or nicotine.

RESULTS

Our findings show that cigarette smoke significantly reduces microglial viability, increases ROS formation, induces lipid peroxidation, and reduces intracellular glutathione levels. Cigarette smoke also alters the expression of genes involved in mitochondrial dynamics and biogenesis, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction. Additionally, cigarette smoke impairs the unfolded protein response, activates the NF-κB pathway, and induces a pro-inflammatory state characterized by increased TNF and IL-18 expression. Furthermore, cigarette smoke causes DNA damage and decreases the expression of the aging marker Klotho β. In contrast, HTP, exhibited a lesser degree of microglial toxicity, with reduced ROS production, lipid peroxidation, and mitochondrial dysfunction compared to conventional cigarettes.

CONCLUSION

These results highlight the differential toxicological profile of cigarette smoke and HTP on microglial cells, suggesting a potential harm reduction strategy for neurodegenerative disease for smokers unwilling or unable to quit.

New insights into the role of Klotho in inflammation and fibrosis: molecular and cellular mechanisms

As the body's defense mechanism against damage and infection, the inflammatory response is a pathological process that involves a range of inflammatory cells and cytokines. A healthy inflammatory response helps the body repair by eliminating dangerous irritants. However, tissue fibrosis can result from an overly intense or protracted inflammatory response. The anti-aging gene Klotho suppresses oxidation, delays aging, and fosters development of various organs. Numerous investigations conducted in the last few years have discovered that Klotho expression is changed in a variety of clinical diseases and is strongly linked to the course and outcome of a disease. Klotho functions as a co-receptor for FGF and as a humoral factor that mediates intracellular signaling pathways such as transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), toll-like receptors (TLRs), nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB), renin -angiotensin system (RAS), and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). It also interferes with the phenotype and function of inflammatory cells, such as monocytes, macrophages, T cells, and B cells. Additionally, it regulates the production of inflammatory factors. This article aims to examine Klotho's scientific advances in terms of tissue fibrosis and the inflammatory response in order to provide novel therapy concepts for fibrotic and inflammatory disorders.

Klotho: molecular mechanisms and emerging therapeutics in central nervous system diseases

Klotho is recognized as an aging-suppressor protein that is implicated in a variety of processes and signaling pathways. The anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, anti-oxidant, and anti-tumor bioactivities of klotho have extended its application in neurosciences and made the protein popular for its lifespan-extending capacity. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that klotho levels would reduce with aging and numerous pathologies, particularly those related to the central nervous system (CNS). Evidence supports the idea that klotho can be a key therapeutic target in CNS diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, stroke, and Alzheimer's disease. Reviewing the literature suggests that the upregulation of klotho expression regulates various signaling pathways related to autophagy, oxidative stress, inflammation, cognition, and ferroptosis in neurological disorders. Therefore, it has been of great interest to develop drugs or agents that boost or restore klotho levels. In this regard, the present review was designed and aimed to gather the delegated documents regarding the therapeutic potential of Klotho in CNS diseases focusing on the molecular and cellular mechanisms.

Ironing out the Links: Ferroptosis in epilepsy and SUDEP

Iron is a crucial element for almost all organisms because it plays a vital role in oxygen transport, enzymatic processes, and energy generation due to its electron transfer capabilities. However, its dysregulation can lead to a form of programmed cell death known as ferroptosis, which is characterized by cellular iron accumulation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and unrestricted lipid peroxidation. Both iron and ferroptosis have been identified as key players in the pathogenesis of various neurodegenerative diseases. While in epilepsy this phenomenon remains relatively understudied, seizures can be considered hypoxic-ischemic episodes resulting in increased ROS production, lipid peroxidation, membrane disorganization, and cell death. All of this is accompanied by elevated intracellular free Fe2+ concentration and hemosiderin precipitation, as existing reports suggest a significant accumulation of iron in the brain and heart associated with epilepsy. Generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCS), a primary risk factor for Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP), not only have an impact on the brain but also lead to cardiogenic dysfunctions associated with "Iron Overload and Cardiomyopathy" (IOC) and "Epileptic heart" characterized by electrical and mechanical dysfunction and a high risk of malignant bradycardia. In line with this phenomenon, studies conducted by our research group have demonstrated that recurrent seizures induce hypoxia in cardiomyocytes, resulting in P-glycoprotein (P-gp) overexpression, prolonged Q-T interval, severe bradycardia, and hemosiderin precipitation, correlating with an elevated spontaneous death ratio. In this article, we explore the intricate connections among ferroptosis, epilepsy, and SUDEP. By synthesizing current knowledge and drawing insights from recent publications, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of the molecular underpinnings. Furthermore, this review offers insights into potential therapeutic avenues and outlines future research directions.

The current and emerging Klotho-enhancement strategies

Klotho is well known as a gene with antiaging properties. It has membrane and soluble forms, providing a unique system that controls various metabolic processes essential to health and disease. Klotho deficiency has been revealed to be associated with various aging-related disorders. Based on its various known and unknown protective properties, upregulating the Klotho gene may be a possible therapeutic and/or preventive approach in aging-related complications. Some agents, such as hormonal compounds, renin-angiotensin system inhibitors, antioxidants, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) agonists, statins, vitamin D receptor agonists, antioxidants, anti-inflammatory agents, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling inhibitors, and receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1 (RIPK1) inhibitors, can possibly lead to the upregulation and elevation of Klotho levels. Demethylation and deacetylation of the Klotho gene can also be considered other possible Klotho-enhancement methods. Some emerging techniques, such as RNA modifications, gene therapy, gene editing, and exosome therapy, probably have the potential to be applied for increasing Klotho. In the present study, these current and emerging Klotho-enhancement strategies and their underlying mechanisms were comprehensively reviewed, which could highlight some potential avenues for future research.