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Kettunen P, Koistinaho J, Rolova T. Contribution of CNS and extra-CNS infections to neurodegeneration: a narrative review. J Neuroinflammation 2024; 21:152. [PMID: 38845026 PMCID: PMC11157808 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-024-03139-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Central nervous system infections have been suggested as a possible cause for neurodegenerative diseases, particularly sporadic cases. They trigger neuroinflammation which is considered integrally involved in neurodegenerative processes. In this review, we will look at data linking a variety of viral, bacterial, fungal, and protozoan infections to Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis and unspecified dementia. This narrative review aims to bring together a broad range of data currently supporting the involvement of central nervous system infections in the development of neurodegenerative diseases. The idea that no single pathogen or pathogen group is responsible for neurodegenerative diseases will be discussed. Instead, we suggest that a wide range of susceptibility factors may make individuals differentially vulnerable to different infectious pathogens and subsequent pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pinja Kettunen
- Helsinki Institute of Life Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jari Koistinaho
- Helsinki Institute of Life Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Taisia Rolova
- Helsinki Institute of Life Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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2
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Arabi TZ, Alabdulqader AA, Sabbah BN, Ouban A. Brain-inhabiting bacteria and neurodegenerative diseases: the "brain microbiome" theory. Front Aging Neurosci 2023; 15:1240945. [PMID: 37927338 PMCID: PMC10620799 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2023.1240945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Controversies surrounding the validity of the toxic proteinopathy theory of Alzheimer's disease have led the scientific community to seek alternative theories in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders (ND). Recent studies have provided evidence of a microbiome in the central nervous system. Some have hypothesized that brain-inhabiting organisms induce chronic neuroinflammation, leading to the development of a spectrum of NDs. Bacteria such as Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, and Cutibacterium acnes have been found to inhabit the brains of ND patients. Furthermore, several fungi, including Candida and Malassezia species, have been identified in the central nervous system of these patients. However, there remains several limitations to the brain microbiome hypothesis. Varying results across the literature, concerns regarding sample contamination, and the presence of exogenous deoxyribonucleic acids have led to doubts about the hypothesis. These results provide valuable insight into the pathogenesis of NDs. Herein, we provide a review of the evidence for and against the brain microbiome theory and describe the difficulties facing the hypothesis. Additionally, we define possible mechanisms of bacterial invasion of the brain and organism-related neurodegeneration in NDs and the potential therapeutic premises of this theory.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Abderrahman Ouban
- College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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3
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Frau J, Coghe G, Lorefice L, Fenu G, Cocco E. The Role of Microorganisms in the Etiopathogenesis of Demyelinating Diseases. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:1309. [PMID: 37374092 DOI: 10.3390/life13061309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Revised: 05/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS), neuromyelitis optica (NMO) and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody disease (MOGAD) are inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) with a multifactorial aetiology. Environmental factors are important for their development and microorganisms could play a determining role. They can directly damage the CNS, but their interaction with the immune system is even more important. The possible mechanisms involved include molecular mimicry, epitope spreading, bystander activation and the dual cell receptor theory. The role of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) in MS has been definitely established, since being seropositive is a necessary condition for the onset of MS. EBV interacts with genetic and environmental factors, such as low levels of vitamin D and human endogenous retrovirus (HERV), another microorganism implicated in the disease. Many cases of onset or exacerbation of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) have been described after infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, EBV and human immunodeficiency virus; however, no definite association with a virus has been found. A possible role has been suggested for Helicobacter pylori, in particular in individuals with aquaporin 4 antibodies. The onset of MOGAD could occur after an infection, mainly in the monophasic course of the disease. A role for the HERV in MOGAD has been hypothesized. In this review, we examined the current understanding of the involvement of infectious factors in MS, NMO and MOGAD. Our objective was to elucidate the roles of each microorganism in initiating the diseases and influencing their clinical progression. We aimed to discuss both the infectious factors that have a well-established role and those that have yielded conflicting results across various studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Frau
- Multiple Sclerosis Centre, ASL Cagliari, 09126 Cagliari, Italy
| | - Giancarlo Coghe
- Multiple Sclerosis Centre, ASL Cagliari, 09126 Cagliari, Italy
| | - Lorena Lorefice
- Multiple Sclerosis Centre, ASL Cagliari, 09126 Cagliari, Italy
| | | | - Eleonora Cocco
- Multiple Sclerosis Centre, ASL Cagliari, 09126 Cagliari, Italy
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, 09124 Cagliari, Italy
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Rice Water-Fried Atractylodis Rhizoma Relieves Spleen Deficiency Diarrhea by Regulating the Intestinal Microbiome. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2023; 2023:1983616. [PMID: 36798685 PMCID: PMC9928513 DOI: 10.1155/2023/1983616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2022] [Revised: 01/08/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
Abstract
Background Spleen deficiency diarrhea (SDD) is a common Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) gastrointestinal condition, the causes of which include dysfunction of the intestinal barrier and microbiota. Rice water-fried Atractylodis Rhizoma (RAR) is a commonly used drug to treat this condition, but its mechanism remains unclear. This study explored the related mechanisms of ethanolic extract of rice water-fried Atractylodis Rhizoma (EAR) in the treatment of SDD by examining changes in the intestinal microbiota. Method Wistar rats were randomly divided into 4 groups including the control, model, EAR low, and high-dose groups, 6 rats in each group. All rats, except the control group, were induced to develop SDD by a bitter-cold purgation method with rhubarb. The therapeutic effect of EAR on SDD was evaluated by pathological sections, inflammatory indicators (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-10), gastrointestinal-related indicators (GAS, DAO, D-lactate, VIP, and SIgA), and intestinal flora (bacteria and fungi) analysis. Results The results showed that the developed SDD rat model (model group) showed weight loss, decreased food intake, and increased fecal moisture content. Compared with those of the control group, the levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, DAO, D-lactate, and VIP in the model group were significantly increased, but the levels of IL-10, GAS and SIgA were significantly decreased (p < 0.05). However, the indicators were significantly improved after EAR treatment, indicating that EAR maintained the balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and reduced gastric emptying, thereby protecting intestinal barrier function, alleviating intestinal mucosal injury, and relieving SDD by regulating the release of neurotransmitters. EAR was also shown to prevent infection by promoting the accumulation of noninflammatory immunoglobulin SIgA and improving intestinal mucosal immunity to inhibit the adhesion of bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens. Intestinal microbiome analysis showed that the intestinal bacteria and fungi of SDD model rats changed greatly compared with the control group, resulting in intestinal microecological imbalance. The reversal in the composition of the flora after EAR treatment was mainly characterized by a large enrichment of beneficial bacteria represented by Lactobacillus and a decrease in the abundance of potentially pathogenic fungi represented by Aspergillus. Thus, it was speculated that EAR primarily functions to alleviate SDD by increasing the abundance of beneficial bacteria and reducing the abundance of potentially pathogenic fungi. Conclusion The strong therapeutic effect of EAR on SDD suggests that it is a promising treatment for this condition.
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Wu C, Jiang ML, Jiang R, Pang T, Zhang CJ. The roles of fungus in CNS autoimmune and neurodegeneration disorders. Front Immunol 2023; 13:1077335. [PMID: 36776399 PMCID: PMC9910218 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1077335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Fungal infection or proliferation in our body is capable of initiation of strong inflammation and immune responses that result in different consequences, including infection-trigged organ injury and inflammation-related remote organ dysfunction. Fungi associated infectious diseases have been well recognized in the clinic. However, whether fungi play an important role in non-infectious central nervous system disease is still to be elucidated. Recently, a growing amount of evidence point to a non-negligible role of peripheral fungus in triggering unique inflammation, immune response, and exacerbation of a range of non-infectious CNS disorders, including Multiple sclerosis, Neuromyelitis optica, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis et al. In this review, we summarized the recent advances in recognizing patterns and inflammatory signaling of fungi in different subsets of immune cells, with a specific focus on its function in CNS autoimmune and neurodegeneration diseases. In conclusion, the fungus is capable of triggering unique inflammation by multiple mechanisms in the progression of a body of CNS non-infectious diseases, suggesting it serves as a key factor and critical novel target for the development of potential therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuyu Wu
- Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital Clinical College of Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China,State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Screening, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Discovery for Metabolic Diseases, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Mei-Ling Jiang
- Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital Clinical College of Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China,*Correspondence: Cun-Jin Zhang, ; Mei-Ling Jiang, ; Tao Pang,
| | - Runqui Jiang
- Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital Clinical College of Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Tao Pang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Screening, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Discovery for Metabolic Diseases, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China,*Correspondence: Cun-Jin Zhang, ; Mei-Ling Jiang, ; Tao Pang,
| | - Cun-Jin Zhang
- Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital Clinical College of Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China,Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School and the State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China,Institute of Brain Sciences, Institute of Brain Disorder Translational Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China,Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China,Jiangsu Province Stroke Center for Diagnosis and Therapy, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China,*Correspondence: Cun-Jin Zhang, ; Mei-Ling Jiang, ; Tao Pang,
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6
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Angeloni C, Malaguti M, Prata C, Freschi M, Barbalace MC, Hrelia S. Mechanisms Underlying Neurodegenerative Disorders and Potential Neuroprotective Activity of Agrifood By-Products. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 12:antiox12010094. [PMID: 36670956 PMCID: PMC9854890 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12010094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases, characterized by progressive loss in selected areas of the nervous system, are becoming increasingly prevalent worldwide due to an aging population. Despite their diverse clinical manifestations, neurodegenerative diseases are multifactorial disorders with standard features and mechanisms such as abnormal protein aggregation, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and inflammation. As there are no effective treatments to counteract neurodegenerative diseases, increasing interest has been directed to the potential neuroprotective activities of plant-derived compounds found abundantly in food and in agrifood by-products. Food waste has an extremely negative impact on the environment, and recycling is needed to promote their disposal and overcome this problem. Many studies have been carried out to develop green and effective strategies to extract bioactive compounds from food by-products, such as peel, leaves, seeds, bran, kernel, pomace, and oil cake, and to investigate their biological activity. In this review, we focused on the potential neuroprotective activity of agrifood wastes obtained by common products widely produced and consumed in Italy, such as grapes, coffee, tomatoes, olives, chestnuts, onions, apples, and pomegranates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Angeloni
- Department for Life Quality Studies, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Corso D’Augusto 237, 47921 Rimini, Italy
| | - Marco Malaguti
- Department for Life Quality Studies, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Corso D’Augusto 237, 47921 Rimini, Italy
- Correspondence: (M.M.); (C.P.)
| | - Cecilia Prata
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Via Irnerio 48, 40126 Bologna, Italy
- Correspondence: (M.M.); (C.P.)
| | - Michela Freschi
- Department for Life Quality Studies, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Corso D’Augusto 237, 47921 Rimini, Italy
| | - Maria Cristina Barbalace
- Department for Life Quality Studies, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Corso D’Augusto 237, 47921 Rimini, Italy
| | - Silvana Hrelia
- Department for Life Quality Studies, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Corso D’Augusto 237, 47921 Rimini, Italy
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Fraga-Silva TFDC, Munhoz-Alves N, Mimura LAN, de Oliveira LRC, Figueiredo-Godoi LMA, Garcia MT, Oliveira ES, Ishikawa LLW, Zorzella-Pezavento SFG, Bonato VLD, Junqueira JC, Bagagli E, Sartori A. Systemic Infection by Non-albicans Candida Species Affects the Development of a Murine Model of Multiple Sclerosis. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8040386. [PMID: 35448617 PMCID: PMC9032036 DOI: 10.3390/jof8040386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Revised: 03/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Candidiasis may affect the central nervous system (CNS), and although Candida albicans is predominant, non-albicans Candida species can also be associated with CNS infections. Some studies have suggested that Candida infections could increase the odds of multiple sclerosis (MS) development. In this context, we investigated whether systemic infection by non-albicans Candida species would affect, clinically or immunologically, the severity of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), which is an animal model used to study MS. For this, a strain of C. glabrata, C. krusei, and C. parapsilosis was selected and characterized using different in vitro and in vivo models. In these analysis, all the strains exhibited the ability to form biofilms, produce proteolytic enzymes, and cause systemic infections in Galleria mellonella, with C. glabrata being the most virulent species. Next, C57BL/6 mice were infected with strains of C. glabrata, C. krusei, or C. parapsilosis, and 3 days later were immunized with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein to develop EAE. Mice from EAE groups previously infected with C. glabrata and C. krusei developed more severe and more prevalent paralysis, while mice from the EAE group infected with C. parapsilosis developed a disease comparable to non-infected EAE mice. Disease aggravation by C. glabrata and C. krusei strains was concomitant to increased IL-17 and IFN-γ production by splenic cells stimulated with fungi-derived antigens and with increased percentage of T lymphocytes and myeloid cells in the CNS. Analysis of interaction with BV-2 microglial cell line also revealed differences among these strains, in which C. krusei was the strongest activator of microglia concerning the expression of MHC II and CD40 and pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Altogether, these results indicated that the three non-albicans Candida strains were similarly able to reach the CNS but distinct in terms of their effect over EAE development. Whereas C. glabrata and C. Krusei aggravated the development of EAE, C. parapsilosis did not affect its severity. Disease worsening was partially associated to virulence factors in C. glabrata and to a strong activation of microglia in C. krusei infection. In conclusion, systemic infections by non-albicans Candida strains exerted influence on the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in both immunological and clinical aspects, emphasizing their possible relevance in MS development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thais Fernanda de Campos Fraga-Silva
- Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu 18618-689, Brazil; (N.M.-A.); (L.A.N.M.); (E.S.O.); (L.L.W.I.); (S.F.G.Z.-P.); (E.B.); (A.S.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Natália Munhoz-Alves
- Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu 18618-689, Brazil; (N.M.-A.); (L.A.N.M.); (E.S.O.); (L.L.W.I.); (S.F.G.Z.-P.); (E.B.); (A.S.)
| | - Luiza Ayumi Nishiyama Mimura
- Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu 18618-689, Brazil; (N.M.-A.); (L.A.N.M.); (E.S.O.); (L.L.W.I.); (S.F.G.Z.-P.); (E.B.); (A.S.)
| | | | - Lívia Mara Alves Figueiredo-Godoi
- Institute of Science and Technology, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Sao Jose dos Campos 12245-000, Brazil; (L.M.A.F.-G.); (M.T.G.); (J.C.J.)
| | - Maíra Terra Garcia
- Institute of Science and Technology, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Sao Jose dos Campos 12245-000, Brazil; (L.M.A.F.-G.); (M.T.G.); (J.C.J.)
| | - Evelyn Silva Oliveira
- Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu 18618-689, Brazil; (N.M.-A.); (L.A.N.M.); (E.S.O.); (L.L.W.I.); (S.F.G.Z.-P.); (E.B.); (A.S.)
| | - Larissa Lumi Watanabe Ishikawa
- Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu 18618-689, Brazil; (N.M.-A.); (L.A.N.M.); (E.S.O.); (L.L.W.I.); (S.F.G.Z.-P.); (E.B.); (A.S.)
| | - Sofia Fernanda Gonçalves Zorzella-Pezavento
- Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu 18618-689, Brazil; (N.M.-A.); (L.A.N.M.); (E.S.O.); (L.L.W.I.); (S.F.G.Z.-P.); (E.B.); (A.S.)
| | - Vânia Luiza Deperon Bonato
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Ribeirao Preto 14049-900, Brazil;
| | - Juliana Campos Junqueira
- Institute of Science and Technology, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Sao Jose dos Campos 12245-000, Brazil; (L.M.A.F.-G.); (M.T.G.); (J.C.J.)
| | - Eduardo Bagagli
- Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu 18618-689, Brazil; (N.M.-A.); (L.A.N.M.); (E.S.O.); (L.L.W.I.); (S.F.G.Z.-P.); (E.B.); (A.S.)
| | - Alexandrina Sartori
- Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu 18618-689, Brazil; (N.M.-A.); (L.A.N.M.); (E.S.O.); (L.L.W.I.); (S.F.G.Z.-P.); (E.B.); (A.S.)
- Postgraduate Program in Tropical Disease, Botucatu Medical School, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu 18618-687, Brazil;
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Mold, Mycotoxins and a Dysregulated Immune System: A Combination of Concern? Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222212269. [PMID: 34830149 PMCID: PMC8619365 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222212269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungi represent one of the most diverse and abundant eukaryotes on earth. The interplay between mold exposure and the host immune system is still not fully elucidated. Literature research focusing on up-to-date publications is providing a heterogenous picture of evidence and opinions regarding the role of mold and mycotoxins in the development of immune diseases. While the induction of allergic immune responses by molds is generally acknowledged, other direct health effects like the toxic mold syndrome are controversially discussed. However, recent observations indicate a particular importance of mold/mycotoxin exposure in individuals with pre-existing dysregulation of the immune system, due to exacerbation of underlying pathophysiology including allergic and non-allergic chronic inflammatory diseases, autoimmune disorders, and even human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease progression. In this review, we focus on the impact of mycotoxins regarding their impact on disease progression in pre-existing immune dysregulation. This is complemented by experimental in vivo and in vitro findings to present cellular and molecular modes of action. Furthermore, we discuss hypothetical mechanisms of action, where evidence is missing since much remains to be discovered.
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Candida tropicalis Systemic Infection Redirects Leukocyte Infiltration to the Kidneys Attenuating Encephalomyelitis. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7090757. [PMID: 34575795 PMCID: PMC8471291 DOI: 10.3390/jof7090757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2021] [Revised: 09/04/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Environmental factors, including infections, are strongly associated with the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS), which is an autoimmune and demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Although classically associated with bacterial and viral agents, fungal species have also been suspected to affect the course of the disease. Candida tropicalis is an opportunistic fungus that affects immunocompromised individuals and is also able to spread to vital organs. As C. tropicalis has been increasingly isolated from systemic infections, we aimed to evaluate the effect of this fungus on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a murine model to study MS. For this, EAE was induced in female C57BL/6 mice 3 days after infection with 106 viable C. tropicalis yeasts. The infection decreased EAE prevalence and severity, confirmed by the less inflammatory infiltrate and less demyelization in the lumbar spinal cord. Despite this, C. tropicalis infection associated with EAE results in the death of some animals and increased urea and creatinine serum levels. The kidneys of EAE-infected mice showed higher fungal load associated with increased leukocyte infiltration (CD45+ cells) and higher expression of T-box transcription factor (Tbx21) and forkhead box P3 (Foxp3). Altogether, our results demonstrate that although C. tropicalis infection reduces the prevalence and severity of EAE, partially due to the sequestration of leukocytes by the inflamed renal tissue, this effect is associated with a poor disease outcome.
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Nguyen VTT, König S, Eggert S, Endres K, Kins S. The role of mycotoxins in neurodegenerative diseases: current state of the art and future perspectives of research. Biol Chem 2021; 403:3-26. [PMID: 34449171 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2021-0214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are fungal metabolites that can cause various diseases in humans and animals. The adverse health effects of mycotoxins such as liver failure, immune deficiency, and cancer are well-described. However, growing evidence suggests an additional link between these fungal metabolites and neurodegenerative diseases. Despite the wealth of these initial reports, reliable conclusions are still constrained by limited access to human patients and availability of suitable cell or animal model systems. This review summarizes knowledge on mycotoxins associated with neurodegenerative diseases and the assumed underlying pathophysiological mechanisms. The limitations of the common in vivo and in vitro experiments to identify the role of mycotoxins in neurotoxicity and thereby in neurodegenerative diseases are elucidated and possible future perspectives to further evolve this research field are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vu Thu Thuy Nguyen
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Untere Zahlbacher Str. 8, D-55131 Mainz, Germany
| | - Svenja König
- Department of Human Biology and Human Genetics, University of Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 13, D-67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Simone Eggert
- Department of Human Biology and Human Genetics, University of Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 13, D-67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Kristina Endres
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Untere Zahlbacher Str. 8, D-55131 Mainz, Germany
| | - Stefan Kins
- Department of Human Biology and Human Genetics, University of Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 13, D-67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
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11
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Yidana DB. Hidradenitis suppurativa - The role of interleukin-17, the aryl hydrocarbon receptor and the link to a possible fungal aetiology. Med Hypotheses 2021; 149:110530. [PMID: 33607406 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2021.110530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Hidradenitis Suppurativa (HS) is a chronic, recurrent, debilitating skin disease of the hair follicle that usually presents after puberty with painful, deep-seated, inflamed lesions in the apocrine gland bearing areas of the body, most commonly the axillae, inguinal and anogenital regions. The pathophysiology of the disease remains elusive, with newer therapies targeting various aspects of the dysregulated immune system. This presents a useful opportunity to look at the cytokine profile in HS and other inflammatory conditions that share similar patterns with the aim of teasing out less considered explanations for HS pathogenesis. It has been observed that IL-17 appears to be the most common denominator linking HS with other immune mediated diseases like Crohn, ulcerative colitis, multiple sclerosis and psoriasis. Given that IL-17 plays an important role in antifungal immunity, evidenced by the cytokine pattern in fungal disease and the bulk of data citing their potential involvement in Crohn, ulcerative colitis, multiple sclerosis and psoriasis; it is fair to suggest the need to explore the role that fungi play in the setting of HS going forward. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (ahr) is a ubiquitous and largely conserved entity that is gaining interest in inflammatory conditions such as psoriasis and atopic dermatitis. It is well known to modulate autoimmune states. Its activation by both exogenous and endogenous agents result in secretion of IL-17 by Th17 cells. One of such agents is the tryptophan metabolite 6-formylindolo [3,2-b] carbazole (FICZ)-which can be produced by microorganisms such as fungi. It will be interesting to explore its usefulness in HS pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel B Yidana
- King's College London, St. John's Institute of Dermatology, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, United Kingdom.
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12
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Coffee Silverskin and Spent Coffee Suitable as Neuroprotectors against Cell Death by Beauvericin and α-Zearalenol: Evaluating Strategies of Treatment. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13020132. [PMID: 33579040 PMCID: PMC7916764 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Coffee silverskin and spent coffee have been evaluated in a neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y cells) against beauvericin (BEA) and α-zearalenol (α-ZEL)-induced cytotoxicity with different strategies of treatment. First, the direct treatment of mycotoxins and coffee by-products extracts in SH-SY5Y cells was assayed. IC50 values for α-ZEL were 20.8 and 14.0 µM for 48 h and 72 h, respectively and, for BEA only at 72 h, it was 2.5 µM. Afterwards, the pre-treatment with spent coffee obtained by boiling water increased cell viability for α-ZEL at 24 h and 48 h from 10% to 16% and from 25% to 30%, respectively; while with silverskin coffee, a decrease was observed. Opposite effects were observed for BEA where an increase for silverskin coffee was observed at 24 h and 48 h, from 14% to 23% and from 25% to 44%, respectively; however, a decrease below 50% was observed for spent coffee. Finally, the simultaneous treatment strategy for the highest concentration assayed in SH-SY5Y cells provided higher cytoprotection for α-ZEL (from 44% to 56% for 24 h and 48 h, respectively) than BEA (30% for 24 h and 48 h). Considering the high viability of coffee silverskin extracts for SH-SY5Y cells, there is a forthcoming promising use of these unexploited residues in the near future against mycotoxins effects.
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Sousa FC, Schamber CR, Mello EVDSL, Martins FA, Junior MM, Busso C, de Barros MH, Natali MRM. Fumonisin-containing diets decrease the metabolic activity of myenteric neurons in rats. Nutr Neurosci 2020; 25:1056-1065. [PMID: 33103611 DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2020.1833581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Fumonisins are naturally occurring mycotoxins that contaminate food for human and animal consumption. They have neurotoxic effects, but the mechanisms by which these toxins affect the nervous system are not fully known. In the present study, male Wistar rats were fed between 21 and 63 days of age with diets that contained fumonisins B1+B2 at 0, 1, and 4 mg/kg. The following variables were assessed: food consumption, growth, body weight gain, and blood parameters. Morphoquantitave analyses of the most metabolically active myenteric neurons were performed, detected by NADH-diaphorase activity. Nitrergic neurons were detected by NADPH-diaphorase activity. The fumonisin-containing diets did not significantly alter food consumption or the body or plasma parameters. These diets decreased the metabolic activity of jejunal myenteric neurons, reducing neuronal density of the most metabolic active neurons by 30.8% and the cell body area by 4.3%. The diets also decreased the cell body area of nitrergic neurons by 22.1%. The effects of fumonisin B1 on the respiratory metabolism of isolated mitochondria in the brain and liver were also assessed. A decrease in oxygen consumption up to a 29% in the brain and 38% in the liver was observed in mitochondrial isolates to which 50 µM fumonisin B1 was added. The decrease in respiratory activity that was triggered by exposure to fumonisins was related to the lower metabolic activity of myenteric neurons, which had a negative impact on neuroplasticity of the enteric nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Carlos Sousa
- Department of Biology, Federal University of Technology - Paraná; Dois Vizinhos, Paraná, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | - Cleverson Busso
- Department of Bioprocesses and Biotechnology, Federal University of Technology - Paraná; Toledo, Paraná, Brazil
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14
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da Cunha ETS, Figueiredo-Godoi LMA, Santos DH, Carneiro RPCD, do Olival GS, de Barros PP, Narimatsu K, Tilbery CP, Junqueira JC. Oral Colonization by Candida Species in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis. Mycopathologia 2020; 185:983-991. [PMID: 32856162 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-020-00486-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory demyelinating autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system. Since immune system plays a key role in this disease, patients with MS can present higher risk of infections. PURPOSE This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of Candida spp. in the oral cavity of MS patients in relation to a control group METHODS: In total, 100 individuals were selected: 55 diagnosed with MS and 45 healthy individuals (control group). Saliva samples were collected and seeded in culture media selecting for Candida. Following an incubation period of 48 h, colony-forming units (CFU mL-1) were counted and colonies were isolated for Candida species identification by multiplex PCR. The results were analysed by chi-squared and Mann-Whitney U statistical tests considering a significance level of 5%. RESULTS Candida spp. were confirmed in the oral cavity of 50.09% patients in the MS group and 35.55% individuals in the control group. In individuals positive for the growth of Candida spp., the median values of Candida colonies were 220 CFU mL-1 for the MS group and 120 CFU mL-1 for the control group. However, no statistically significant differences were observed between groups for both prevalence and CFU mL-1 count. Of the Candida species identified, 73.91% were C. albicans, 21.73% C. glabrata, 2.17% C. tropicalis, and 2.17% C. krusei. CONCLUSIONS The colonization of Candida spp. in the oral cavity of individuals with multiple sclerosis was higher than in the control group; however these findings were not proven to be statistically significant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliana Tomomi Shimabukuro da Cunha
- Department of Biosciences and Oral Diagnosis, Institute of Science and Technology, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Francisco José Longo 777, São Dimas, São José dos Campos, SP, 12245-000, Brazil.,Irmandade da Santa Casa de Misericórdia de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lívia Mara Alves Figueiredo-Godoi
- Department of Biosciences and Oral Diagnosis, Institute of Science and Technology, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Francisco José Longo 777, São Dimas, São José dos Campos, SP, 12245-000, Brazil.
| | | | | | | | - Patrícia Pimentel de Barros
- Department of Biosciences and Oral Diagnosis, Institute of Science and Technology, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Francisco José Longo 777, São Dimas, São José dos Campos, SP, 12245-000, Brazil
| | - Keila Narimatsu
- Irmandade da Santa Casa de Misericórdia de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Charles Peter Tilbery
- Irmandade da Santa Casa de Misericórdia de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medical Sciences of Santa Casa de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Juliana Campos Junqueira
- Department of Biosciences and Oral Diagnosis, Institute of Science and Technology, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Francisco José Longo 777, São Dimas, São José dos Campos, SP, 12245-000, Brazil
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15
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Jiang HY, Pan LY, Zhang X, Zhang Z, Zhou YY, Ruan B. Altered gut bacterial-fungal interkingdom networks in patients with current depressive episode. Brain Behav 2020; 10:e01677. [PMID: 32533650 PMCID: PMC7428472 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.1677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Bacterial dysbiosis has been described in patients with current depressive episode (CDE); however, the fungal composition in the gut has not been investigated in these patients. METHODS Here, we characterized the fungal gut mycobiota in patients with CDE. We systematically characterized the microbiota and mycobiota in fecal samples obtained from 24 patients with CDE and 16 healthy controls (HC) using 16S rRNA gene- and ITS1-based DNA sequencing, respectively. RESULTS In patients with CDE, bacterial dysbiosis was characterized by an altered composition and reduced correlation network density, and the gut mycobiota was characterized by a relative reduction in alpha diversity and altered composition. Most notably, the CDE group had higher levels of Candida and lower level of Penicillium than the HC group. Compared with the HC group, the gut microbiota in patients with CDE displayed a significant disruption in the bacteria-fungi correlation network suggestive of altered interkingdom interactions. Furthermore, a gut microbial index based on the combination of eight genera (four bacterial and four fungal CDE-associated genera) distinguished CDE patients from controls with an area under the curve of approximately 0.84, suggesting that the gut microbiome signature is a promising tool for disease classification. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that both bacteria and fungi contribute to gut dysbiosis in patients with CDE. Future studies involving larger cohorts and metagenomic or metabolomic analyses may clarify the structure and potential roles and functions of the gut mycobiome and its impact on the development of CDE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Yin Jiang
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Li-Ya Pan
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xue Zhang
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhe Zhang
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yuan-Yue Zhou
- Department of Child Psychiatry, Hangzhou Seventh People's Hospital, Hangzhou, China
| | - Bing Ruan
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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16
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Gonkowski S, Gajęcka M, Makowska K. Mycotoxins and the Enteric Nervous System. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12070461. [PMID: 32707706 PMCID: PMC7404981 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12070461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by various fungal species. They are commonly found in a wide range of agricultural products. Mycotoxins contained in food enter living organisms and may have harmful effects on many internal organs and systems. The gastrointestinal tract, which first comes into contact with mycotoxins present in food, is particularly vulnerable to the harmful effects of these toxins. One of the lesser-known aspects of the impact of mycotoxins on the gastrointestinal tract is the influence of these substances on gastrointestinal innervation. Therefore, the present study is the first review of current knowledge concerning the influence of mycotoxins on the enteric nervous system, which plays an important role, not only in almost all regulatory processes within the gastrointestinal tract, but also in adaptive and protective reactions in response to pathological and toxic factors in food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sławomir Gonkowski
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-957 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Magdalena Gajęcka
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego Str. 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Krystyna Makowska
- Department of Clinical Diagnostics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego 14, 10-957 Olsztyn, Poland
- Correspondence:
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17
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Gliotoxin Aggravates Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis by Triggering Neuroinflammation. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11080443. [PMID: 31357414 PMCID: PMC6722733 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11080443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Gliotoxin (GTX) is the major and the most potent mycotoxin that is secreted by Aspergillus fumigatus, which is capable of injuring and killing microglial cells, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. During the last years, studies with patients and experimental models of multiple sclerosis (MS), which is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS), suggested that fungal infections are among the possible initiators or aggravators of this pathology. The deleterious effect can occur through a direct interaction of the fungus with the CNS or by the toxin release from a non-neurological site. In the present work, we investigated the effect of GTX on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) development. Female C57BL/6 mice were immunized with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein and then intraperitoneally injected with three doses of GTX (1 mg/kg b.w., each) on days 4, 7, and 10. GTX aggravated clinical symptoms of the disease in a dose-dependent way and this outcome was concomitant with an increased neuroinflammation. CNS analyses revealed that GTX locally increased the relative expression of inflammatory genes and the cytokine production. Our results indicate that GTX administered in a non-neuronal site was able to increase neuroinflammation in EAE. Other mycotoxins could also be deleterious to many neurological diseases by similar mechanisms.
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18
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Hachim MY, Elemam NM, Maghazachi AA. The Beneficial and Debilitating Effects of Environmental and Microbial Toxins, Drugs, Organic Solvents and Heavy Metals on the Onset and Progression of Multiple Sclerosis. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E147. [PMID: 30841532 PMCID: PMC6468554 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11030147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS), a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system is common amongst young adults, leading to major personal and socioeconomic burdens. However, it is still considered complex and challenging to understand and treat, in spite of the efforts made to explain its etiopathology. Despite the discovery of many genetic and environmental factors that might be related to its etiology, no clear answer was found about the causes of the illness and neither about the detailed mechanism of these environmental triggers that make individuals susceptible to MS. In this review, we will attempt to explore the major contributors to MS autoimmunity including genetic, epigenetic and ecological factors with a particular focus on toxins, chemicals or drugs that may trigger, modify or prevent MS disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmood Y Hachim
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, and the Immuno-Oncology group, Sharjah Institute for Medical Research (SIMR), University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates.
| | - Noha M Elemam
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, and the Immuno-Oncology group, Sharjah Institute for Medical Research (SIMR), University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates.
| | - Azzam A Maghazachi
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, and the Immuno-Oncology group, Sharjah Institute for Medical Research (SIMR), University of Sharjah, Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates.
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19
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Forbes JD, Bernstein CN, Tremlett H, Van Domselaar G, Knox NC. A Fungal World: Could the Gut Mycobiome Be Involved in Neurological Disease? Front Microbiol 2019; 9:3249. [PMID: 30687254 PMCID: PMC6333682 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.03249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The human microbiome has received decades of attention from scientific and medical research communities. The human gastrointestinal tract is host to immense populations of microorganisms including bacteria, viruses, archaea, and fungi (the gut microbiota). High-throughput sequencing and computational advancements provide unprecedented ability to investigate the structure and function of microbial communities associated with the human body in health and disease. Most research to date has largely focused on elucidating the bacterial component of the human gut microbiota. Study of the gut "mycobiota," which refers to the diverse array of fungal species, is a relatively new and rapidly progressing field. Though omnipresent, the number and abundance of fungi occupying the human gut is orders of magnitude smaller than that of bacteria. Recent insights however, have suggested that the gut mycobiota may be intricately linked to health and disease. Evaluation of the gut mycobiota has shown that not only are the fungal communities altered in disease, but they also play a role in maintaining intestinal homeostasis and influencing systemic immunity. In addition, it is now widely accepted that host-fungi and bacteria-fungi associations are critical to host health. While research of the gut mycobiota in health and disease is on the rise, little research has been performed in the context of neuroimmune and neurodegenerative conditions. Gut microbiota dysbiosis (specifically bacteria and archaea) have been reported in neurological diseases such as multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Alzheimer's, among others. Given the widely accepted bacteria-fungi associations and paucity of mycobiota-specific studies in neurological disease, this review discusses the potential role fungi may play in multiple sclerosis and other neurological diseases. Herein, we provide an overview of recent advances in gut mycobiome research and discuss the plausible role of both intestinal and non-intestinal fungi in the context of neuroimmune and neurodegenerative conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica D. Forbes
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
- IBD Clinical and Research Centre, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Charles N. Bernstein
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
- IBD Clinical and Research Centre, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Helen Tremlett
- Centre for Brain Health and Faculty of Medicine (Neurology), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Gary Van Domselaar
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Natalie C. Knox
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
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20
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Dehhaghi M, Kazemi Shariat Panahi H, Guillemin GJ. Microorganisms' Footprint in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:466. [PMID: 30564101 PMCID: PMC6288487 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Advancement of science has gifted the human a longer life; however, as neuron cells do not regenerate, the number of people with neurodegeneration disorders rises with population aging. Neurodegeneration diseases occur as a result of neuronal cells loss caused by environmental factors, genetic mutations, proteopathies and other cellular dysfunctions. The negative direct or indirect contributions of various microorganisms in onset or severity of some neurodegeneration disorders and interaction between human immune system and pathogenic microorganisms has been portrayed in this review article. This association may explain the early onset of neurodegeneration disorders in some individuals, which can be traced through detailed study of health background of these individuals for infection with any microbial disease with neuropathogenic microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses). A better understanding and recognition of the relation between microorganisms and neurodegeneration disorders may help researchers in development of novel remedies to avoid, postpone, or make neurodegeneration disorders less severe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mona Dehhaghi
- Neuroinflammation Group, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Department of Microbial Biotechnology, School of Biology and Centre of Excellence in Phylogeny of Living Organisms, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hamed Kazemi Shariat Panahi
- Neuroinflammation Group, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Department of Microbial Biotechnology, School of Biology and Centre of Excellence in Phylogeny of Living Organisms, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Gilles J Guillemin
- Neuroinflammation Group, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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21
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Saroukolaei SA, Ghabaee M, Shokri H, Badiei A, Ghourchian S. The role of Candida albicans in the severity of multiple sclerosis. Mycoses 2017; 59:697-704. [PMID: 27061227 DOI: 10.1111/myc.12489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2015] [Revised: 01/26/2016] [Accepted: 01/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare the specific activity of proteinase A in Candida albicans (C. albicans) between multiple sclerosis (MS) patients and controls. A total of 135 and 100 C. albicans strains were isolated from superficial surfaces of MS patients and healthy controls. Analytical models (regression and neural network) were applied to predict the severity of MS considering specific enzyme activity (SEA) and other factors which affect the expanded disability status scale (EDSS). The SEA of C. albicans in MS patients (3466.95 ± 277.25 μmol min-1 mg-1 ) was significantly more than that of healthy controls (1108.98 ± 294.51 μmol min-1 mg-1 ) that was confirmed by regression model (P < 0.001). The SEA had a positive correlation with the severity of MS (P < 0.001, r = 0.65). Analytical models showed that SEA played the most important role (among all included factors that affect on EDSS) in the severity of MS. The SEA of C. albicans in MS patients was significantly more than the healthy controls. The results suggest that the level of SEA of proteinase A and probably the capacity of C. albicans isolates to invade the host tissue is associated with the severity of MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahla Amri Saroukolaei
- Neurology Department, Iranian Center of Neurological Research, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mojdeh Ghabaee
- Neurology Department, Iranian Center of Neurological Research, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Hojjatollah Shokri
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Amol University of Special Modern Technologies, Amol, Iran
| | - Alireza Badiei
- Department of Pathology, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Shadi Ghourchian
- Medical Internship, Students' Scientific Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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22
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Jovel J, O'keefe S, Patterson J, Bording-Jorgensen M, Wang W, Mason AL, Warren KG, Wong GKS. Cerebrospinal Fluid in a Small Cohort of Patients with Multiple Sclerosis Was Generally Free of Microbial DNA. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 6:198. [PMID: 28111617 PMCID: PMC5216046 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2016.00198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a common cause of non-traumatic neurologic disability with high incidence in many developed countries. Although the etiology of the disease remains elusive, it is thought to entail genetic and environmental causes, and microbial pathogens have also been envisioned as contributors to the phenotype. We conducted a metagenomic survey in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from 28 MS patients and 15 patients suffering other type of neurological conditions. We detected bacterial reads in eight out of the 15 non-MS patients and in a single MS patient, at an abundance >1% of total classified reads. Two patients were of special interest: one non-MS patient harbored ~73% bacterial reads, while an MS patient had ~83% bacterial reads. In the former case, Veillonella parvula, a bacterium occasionally found associated with meningitis was the predominant species, whilst Kocuria flava, apparently an environmental bacterium, predominated in the latter case. Thirty-four out of 43 samples contained <1% bacterial reads, which we regard as cross- or environmental contamination. A few viral reads corresponding to Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, and parvovirus were also identified. Our results suggest that CSF of MS patients is often (but not always) free of microbial DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Jovel
- Department of Medicine, University of Alberta Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Sandra O'keefe
- Department of Medicine, University of Alberta Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Jordan Patterson
- Department of Medicine, University of Alberta Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | | | - Weiwei Wang
- Department of Medicine, University of Alberta Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Andrew L Mason
- Department of Medicine, University of Alberta Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Kenneth G Warren
- Department of Medicine, University of Alberta Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Gane Ka-Shu Wong
- Department of Medicine, University of AlbertaEdmonton, AB, Canada; Department of Biological Sciences, University of AlbertaEdmonton, AB, Canada; Beijing Genomics Institute-Shenzhen, Beishan Industrial ZoneShenzhen, China
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23
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Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis development is aggravated by Candida albicans infection. J Immunol Res 2015; 2015:635052. [PMID: 25969836 PMCID: PMC4417602 DOI: 10.1155/2015/635052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2014] [Revised: 01/19/2015] [Accepted: 01/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory/autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS) mainly mediated by myelin specific T cells. It is widely believed that environmental factors, including fungal infections, contribute to disease induction or evolution. Even though Candida infection among MS patients has been described, the participation of this fungus in this pathology is not clear. The purpose of this work was to evaluate the effect of a Candida albicans infection on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) that is a widely accepted model to study MS. Female C57BL/6 mice were infected with C. albicans and 3 days later, animals were submitted to EAE induction by immunization with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein. Previous infection increased the clinical score and also the body weight loss. EAE aggravation was associated with expansion of peripheral CD4+ T cells and production of high levels of TNF-α, IFN-γ IL-6, and IL-17 by spleen and CNS cells. In addition to yeast and hyphae, fungus specific T cells were found in the CNS. These findings suggest that C. albicans infection before EAE induction aggravates EAE, and possibly MS, mainly by CNS dissemination and local induction of encephalitogenic cytokines. Peripheral production of encephalitogenic cytokines could also contribute to disease aggravation.
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24
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Sousa FC, Schamber CR, Amorin SSS, Natali MRM. Effect of fumonisin-containing diet on the myenteric plexus of the jejunum in rats. Auton Neurosci 2014; 185:93-9. [PMID: 25183308 DOI: 10.1016/j.autneu.2014.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Revised: 08/10/2014] [Accepted: 08/11/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Fumonisins are mycotoxins that naturally occur as contaminants in grains that are destined for animal and human consumption. These mycotoxins cause hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, immunotoxic, and neurotoxic effects in different intensities based on dose, time of exposure, and animal species. In the present study, male Wistar rats were fed between postnatal days 21 and 63 with diets that contained fumonisins B1+B2 at concentrations of 1 and 3mg/kg. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effects of fumonisins on food intake, growth, weight gain, serum activity of the alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase enzymes, and quantitative and morphometric parameters of myenteric neurons in the jejunum that are immunoreactive to HuC/D protein and neuronal nitric oxide synthase enzyme (nNOS). Diets that contained fumonisins did not significantly alter food intake or body and blood parameters. We did not observe significant differences in the neuronal density and proportion of nitrergic neurons but found a significant reduction of cell body areas in both neuronal populations. This study is the first to report the effects of fumonisins in the enteric nervous system. The possible mechanisms by which fumonisins impair neuronal development and the use of the enteric nervous system as a tool for the study of the neurotoxic effects of fumonisins are discussed. In conclusion, fumonisin-containing food negatively affected the growth of myenteric neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Carlos Sousa
- Coordenação de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná, Câmpus Dois Vizinhos, Brazil.
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Fungal infection in cerebrospinal fluid from some patients with multiple sclerosis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2013; 32:795-801. [PMID: 23322279 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-012-1810-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2012] [Accepted: 12/18/2012] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the prototypical inflammatory disease of the central nervous system and spinal cord, leading to axonal demyelination of neurons. Recently, we have found a correlation between fungal infection and MS in peripheral blood of patients. The present work provides evidence of fungal infection in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of some MS patients. Thus, fungal antigens can be demonstrated in CSF, as well as antibodies reacting against several Candida species. Comparison was made between CSF and blood serum for the presence of fungal antigens (proteins) and antibodies against different Candida spp. Analyses of both CSF and serum are complementary and serve to better evaluate for the presence of disseminated fungal infection. In addition, PCR analyses indicate the presence of DNA from different fungal species in CSF, depending on the patient analyzed. Overall, these findings support the notion that fungal infection can be demonstrated in CSF from some MS patients. This may constitute a risk factor in this disease and could also help in understanding the pathogenesis of MS.
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Cannon JR, Greenamyre JT. The role of environmental exposures in neurodegeneration and neurodegenerative diseases. Toxicol Sci 2011; 124:225-50. [PMID: 21914720 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfr239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 254] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurodegeneration describes the loss of neuronal structure and function. Numerous neurodegenerative diseases are associated with neurodegeneration. Many are rare and stem from purely genetic causes. However, the prevalence of major neurodegenerative diseases is increasing with improvements in treating major diseases such as cancers and cardiovascular diseases, resulting in an aging population. The neurological consequences of neurodegeneration in patients can have devastating effects on mental and physical functioning. The causes of most cases of prevalent neurodegenerative diseases are unknown. The role of neurotoxicant exposures in neurodegenerative disease has long been suspected, with much effort devoted to identifying causative agents. However, causative factors for a significant number of cases have yet to be identified. In this review, the role of environmental neurotoxicant exposures on neurodegeneration in selected major neurodegenerative diseases is discussed. Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis were chosen because of available data on environmental influences. The special sensitivity the nervous system exhibits to toxicant exposure and unifying mechanisms of neurodegeneration are explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason R Cannon
- Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
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Razafimanjato H, Benzaria A, Taïeb N, Guo XJ, Vidal N, Di Scala C, Varini K, Maresca M. The ribotoxin deoxynivalenol affects the viability and functions of glial cells. Glia 2011; 59:1672-83. [PMID: 21748807 DOI: 10.1002/glia.21214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2011] [Accepted: 06/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Glial cells are responsible for maintaining brain homeostasis. Modification of the viability and functions of glial cells, including astrocytes and microglia, are associated with neuronal death and neurological diseases. Many toxins (heavy metals, pesticides, bacterial or viral toxins) are known to impact on brain cell viability and functions. Although recent publications suggest a potential link between environmental exposure of humans to mycotoxins and neurological diseases, data regarding the effects of fungal toxins on brain cells are scarce. In the present study, we looked at the impact of deoxynivalenol (DON), a fungal ribotoxin, on glial cells from animal and human origin. We found that DON decreased the viability of glial cells with a higher toxicity against microglial cells compared with astrocytes. In addition to cellular toxicity, DON affected key functions of glial cells. Thus, DON caused a biphasic effect on the neuroinflammatory response of microglia to lipopolysaccharide (LPS), while sublethal doses of DON increased the LPS-induced secretion of TNF-α and nitric oxide, toxic doses inhibited it. In addition to affecting microglial functions, sublethal doses of DON also suppressed the uptake of L-glutamate by astrocytes. This inhibition was associated with a modification of the expression of the glutamate transporters at the plasma membrane. Our results suggest that environmental ribotoxins such as DON could, at low doses, cause modifications of brain homeostasis and possibly participate in the etiology of neurological diseases in which alterations of the glia are involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helisoa Razafimanjato
- CRN2M, CNRS UMR 6231, INRA USC 2027, University of Aix-Marseille 2 and Aix-Marseille 3, Faculté des Sciences de St-Jérôme, 13397 Marseille Cedex 20, France
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Pisa D, Alonso R, Carrasco L. Fungal infection in a patient with multiple sclerosis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2011; 30:1173-80. [PMID: 21533622 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-011-1206-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2011] [Accepted: 02/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the central nervous system, whose causes are still unknown. We have proposed that MS, as well as some ophthalmologic diseases, are associated with fungal infection. In the present study, we closely monitored a patient with MS over a three-year period. Antibodies against different Candida spp. were detected in peripheral blood serum, although the titer of these antibodies fluctuated. The presence of fungal macromolecules, such as proteins, polysaccharides, and DNA, was also tested. In several sera samples, antigens related to C. famata were evidenced by the slot-blot test using a rabbit polyclonal antibody against these species, while high levels of β-1,3 glucan were detected with the commercial Fungitell assay. Despite the variations by sample, we concluded that all fungal macromolecules, that is, proteins, polysaccharides, and DNA, were present in blood from the MS patient which was analyzed. Several fungal species were identified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by sequencing. Antibodies against Candida spp. as well as C. famata-related antigens were also detected in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Our findings provide support for the notion that disseminated mycosis is present in this patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Pisa
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C/ Nicolás Cabrera 1, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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