Deubiquitinase PSMD14 enhances hepatocellular carcinoma growth and metastasis by stabilizing GRB2

PSMD11 promotes the proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma by regulating the ubiquitination degradation of CDK4

BACKGROUND

The 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 11 is a multiprotein complex involved in the ATP-dependent degradation of ubiquitinated proteins, and PSMD11 plays a key role in the regulation of embryonic stem cell proteasome activity. However, the role of PSMD11 in hepatocellular carcinoma has not been studied. In this study, it was found that the expression of PSMD11 in HCC tissues was significantly higher than that in para-cancerous tissues, and was associated with poor prognosis. The results of in vitro experiments showed that PSMD11 knockdown could effectively inhibit the proliferation and apoptosis of hepatoma cell lines, and flow cytometry showed that the G0/G1 phase was significantly prolonged. Through protein spectrometry, immunoprecipitation and in vitro experiments, it was found that PSMD11 can promote the proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma through regulating the ubiquitination of CDK4 and enhancing its protein stability. This study explores the mechanism of action of PSMD11 in hepatocellular carcinoma and provides new insights for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma.

PSMD14 is a novel prognostic marker and therapeutic target in osteosarcoma

BACKGROUND

Osteosarcoma is a bone tumor that is characterized by high malignancy and a high mortality rate, and that originates from primitive osteoblastic mesenchymal cells and is most common in rapidly growing long bones. PSMD14, also known as RPN11 or POH1, is a member of the JAMM isopeptidase family, which is able to remove the substrate protein ubiquitination label, thereby regulating the stability and function of the substrate protein. In this study, we explored the expression and potential biological significance of the PSMD14 deubiquitinating enzyme in osteosarcoma.

METHODS

Immunohistochemical methods were used to detect the expression of PSMD14 in biopsies of 91 osteosarcoma patients, and the specimens were classified into high and low PSMD14 expression groups. The correlation between PSMD14 expression and clinical indicators and prognosis was compared.SiRNA was used to downregulate PSMD14 in two osteosarcoma cell lines (HOS and SJSA-1), and the effects of downregulation of PSMD14 on the viability, proliferation, and invasion ability of osteosarcoma cells were analyzed.

RESULTS

We identified significant differences in recurrence, metastasis, and survival time of the osteosarcoma patients on the basis of PSMD14 expression. High expression of PSMD14 in osteosarcoma patients was associated with a low survival rate and high risk of metastasis and recurrence. Down-regulation of PSMD14 inhibited the viability, proliferation, and invasiveness of osteosarcoma cell lines.

CONCLUSIONS

PSMD14 may be a new prognostic marker and therapeutic target for osteosarcoma.

Prognostic value and potential mechanism of cellular senescence and tumor microenvironment in hepatocellular carcinoma: Insights from bulk transcriptomics and single-cell sequencing analysis

The high mortality rate and postoperative recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) contribute to the burden on society and healthcare. The prognostic value and underlying mechanisms of cellular senescence and tumor microenvironment (TME) in HCC remain unclear. Bulk transcriptomic data were obtained from 368 HCC samples in The Cancer Genome Atlas-liver hepatocellular carcinoma cohort and 64 samples from the GSE116174 dataset. Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data of HCC were obtained from the GSE149614 dataset, including 18 tumor samples from 10 patients. Prognosis-related cellular senescence genes and immune cells were identified through univariate analysis. Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator regression analysis was performed to construct the CellAge score and TME score, both of which were identified as independent prognostic factors for HCC based on multivariate Cox analysis. The combined CellAge and TME scores showed improved prognostic stratification for HCC patients, as confirmed by multivariate Cox analysis (p < .001). The gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) revealed enrichment of the extracellular matrix receptor interaction signaling pathway in the group with high CellAge scores and low TME scores, which exhibited a worse prognosis. Single-cell sequencing results revealed higher expression activity of the cAMP response element modulator (CREM) extended transcription factor in HCC cells and most immune cells, indicating its involvement in TME remodeling. Finally, the tumor immune dysfunction and exclusion (TIDE) analysis demonstrated that the combined scores could predict the outcomes of immune therapy in patients with HCC. In conclusion, cellular senescence contributes to TME remodeling in HCC, and the developed CellAge and TME scores serve as independent prognostic factors and predictors of immune therapy in HCC.

An LRPPRC-HAPSTR1-PSMD14 interaction regulates tumor progression in ovarian cancer

Ovarian cancer is the second most common cause of gynecologic cancer death. Chemoresistance and metastasis remain major challenges for current treatment. Previously, HAPSTR1 was shown to be a target gene of a paclitaxel resistance-associated miRNA. However, the biological function and underlying molecular mechanisms of HAPSTR1 in ovarian cancer progression remain unclear. Herein, we aimed to measure HAPSTR1 expression in ovarian cancer specimens and examine its correlations with clinical features and key functional interactions with other genes and proteins. An immunohistochemistry assay showed that HAPSTR1 was overexpressed in ovarian cancer tissues and was significantly associated with the FIGO stage and clinical outcome. HAPSTR1 overexpression promoted proliferation, invasion and migration in cellular and mouse models, whereas inhibition induced the opposite effects. In addition, HAPSTR1 stimulated the EMT pathway and affected the expression of autophagy biomarkers. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that HAPSTR1 is bound to LRPPRC and PSMD14 via immunoprecipitation. HAPSTR1 suppressed LRPPRC ubiquitination and recruited PSMD14 to interact with LRPPRC. Moreover, LRPPRC knockdown reversed HAPSTR1-mediated improvement in cellular proliferation, invasion, and migration. Our study is the first detailed and comprehensive analysis of HAPSTR1 in cancer progression and offers an experimental basis for the clinical treatment of ovarian carcinoma.

Emerging roles of deubiquitinating enzymes in actin cytoskeleton and tumor metastasis

BACKGROUND

Metastasis accounts for the majority of cancer-related deaths. Actin dynamics and actin-based cell migration and invasion are important factors in cancer metastasis. Metastasis is characterized by actin polymerization and depolymerization, which are precisely regulated by molecular changes involving a plethora of actin regulators, including actin-binding proteins (ABPs) and signalling pathways, that enable cancer cell dissemination from the primary tumour. Research on deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) has revealed their vital roles in actin dynamics and actin-based migration and invasion during cancer metastasis.

CONCLUSION

Here, we review how DUBs drive tumour metastasis by participating in actin rearrangement and actin-based migration and invasion. We summarize the well-characterized and essential actin cytoskeleton signalling molecules related to DUBs, including Rho GTPases, Src kinases, and ABPs such as cofilin and cortactin. Other DUBs that modulate actin-based migration signalling pathways are also discussed. Finally, we discuss and address therapeutic opportunities and ongoing challenges related to DUBs with respect to actin dynamics.

POH1 induces Smad3 deubiquitination and promotes lung cancer metastasis

Smad3 is the key mediator of TGF-β1-triggered signal transduction and the related biological responses, promoting cell invasion and metastasis in various cancers, including lung cancer. However, the deubiquitinase stabilizing Smad3 remains unknown. In this study, we present a paradigm in which POH1 is identified as a novel deubiquitinase of Smad3 that plays a tumor-promoting role in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) by regulating Smad3 stability. POH1 markedly increased Smad3 protein levels and prolonged its half-life. POH1 directly interacted and colocalized with Smad3, leading to the removal of poly-deubiquitination of Smad3. Functionally, POH1 facilitated cell proliferation, migration, and invasion by stabilizing Smad3. Importantly, POH1 also promoted liver metastasis of lung cancer cells. The protein levels of both POH1 and Smad3 were raised in the tumor tissues of patients with LUAD, which predicts poor prognosis. Collectively, we demonstrate that POH1 acts as an oncoprotein by enhancing TGF-β1/Smad3 signaling and TGF-β1-mediated metastasis of lung cancer.

Regulation of Drp1 and enhancement of mitochondrial fission by the deubiquitinating enzyme PSMD14 facilitates the proliferation of bladder cancer cells

The protein Dynein‑related protein 1 (Drp1) plays a crucial role in regulating the process of mitochondrial fission, which is known to be associated with the onset and progression of various human diseases. However, the specific impact of Drp1 on bladder cancer has yet to be fully understood. In previous studies, evidence to support the theory that the deubiquitinating enzyme proteasome non‑ATPase regulatory subunit 14 (PSMD14) is responsible for stabilizing and promoting the activity of Drp1, ultimately resulting in increased mitochondrial fission, has been presented. The levels of PSMD14 in both bladder cancer tissues and cells were elevated, as confirmed through immunohistochemical and immunofluorescent staining. Co‑immunoprecipitation and reciprocal co‑IP tests demonstrated that PSMD14 and Drp1 interacted with each other. Upon knockdown of PSMD14, there was a corresponding decrease in Drp1 expression and subsequent inhibition of mitochondrial fission. However, when the Drp1 agonist Mdivi‑1 was applied to cells where PSMD14 expression had been knocked down, a significant increase in cell growth was observed, partially restoring the cancer‑promoting effects of PSMD14 on cell proliferation. In conclusion, these findings suggest that PSMD14 may stimulate bladder cancer cell proliferation by promoting mitochondrial fission through the stabilization of Drp1.

PSMD14 stabilizes estrogen signaling and facilitates breast cancer progression via deubiquitinating ERα

The over-activation of ERα signaling is regarded as the major driver for luminal breast cancers, which could be effective controlled via selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERM), such as tamoxifen. The endocrine resistance is still a challenge for breast cancer treatment, while recently studies implicate the post-translational modification on ERα play important roles in endocrine resistance. The stability of ERα protein and ERα transcriptome are subject to a balance between E3 ubiquitin ligases and deubiquitinases. Through deubiquitinases siRNA library screening, we discover PSMD14 as a critical deubiquitinase for ERα signaling and breast cancer progression. PSMD14 could facilitate breast cancer progression through ERα signaling in vitro and in vivo, while pharmaceutical inhibition of PSMD14 via Thiolutin could block the tumorigenesis in breast cancer. In endocrine resistant models, PSMD14 inhibition could de-stabilize the resistant form of ERα (Y537S) and restore tamoxifen sensitivity. Molecular studies reveal that PSMD14 could inhibition K48-linked poly-ubiquitination on ERα, facilitate ERα transcriptome. Interestingly, ChIP assay shows that ERα could bind to the promoter region of PSMD14 and facilitate its gene transcription, which indicates PSMD14 is both the upstream modulator and downstream target for ERα signaling in breast cancer. In general, we identified a novel positive feedback loop between PSMD14 and ERα signaling in breast cancer progression, while blockade of PSMD14 could be a plausible strategy for luminal breast cancer.

Aberrant Expressions of PSMD14 in Tumor Tissue are the Potential Prognostic Biomarkers for Hepatocellular Carcinoma after Curative Resection

Introduction

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has a high mortality rate, with curative resection being the primary treatment. However, HCC patients have a large possibility of recurrence within 5 years after curative resection.

Methods

Thus, identifying biomarkers to predict recurrence is crucial. In our study, we analyzed data from CCLE, GEO, and TCGA, identifying eight oncogenes associated with HCC. Subsequently, the expression of 8 genes was tested in 5 cases of tumor tissues and the adjacent non-tumor tissues. Then ATP6AP1, PSMD14 and HSP90AB1 were selected to verify the expression in 63 cases of tumor tissues and the adjacent non-tumor tissues. The results showed that ATP6AP1, PSMD14, HSP90AB1 were generally highly expressed in tumor tissues. A five-year follow-up of the 63 clinical cases, combined with Kaplan-Meier Plotter's relapse-free survival (RFS) analysis, found a significant correlation between PSMD14 expression and recurrence in HCC patients. Subsequently, we analyzed the PSMD14 mutations and found that the PSMD14 gene mutations can lead to a shorter disease-free survival time for HCC patients.

Results

The results of enrichment analysis indicated that the differentially expressed genes related to PSMD14 are mainly enriched in the signal release pathway.

Conclusion

In conclusion, our research showed that PSMD14 might be related to recurrence in HCC patients, and the expression of PSMD14 in tumor tissue might be a potential prognostic biomarker after tumor resection in HCC patients.

Cellular Senescence in Liver Cancer: How Dying Cells Become "Zombie" Enemies

Liver cancer represents the fourth leading cause of cancer-associated death worldwide. The heterogeneity of its tumor microenvironment (TME) is a major contributing factor of metastasis, relapse, and drug resistance. Regrettably, late diagnosis makes most liver cancer patients ineligible for surgery, and the frequent failure of non-surgical therapeutic options orientates clinical research to the investigation of new drugs. In this context, cellular senescence has been recently shown to play a pivotal role in the progression of chronic inflammatory liver diseases, ultimately leading to cancer. Moreover, the stem-like state triggered by senescence has been associated with the emergence of drug-resistant, aggressive tumor clones. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have emerged to investigate senescence-associated hepatocarcinogenesis and its derived therapies, leading to promising results. In this review, we intend to provide an overview of the recent evidence that unveils the role of cellular senescence in the most frequent forms of primary and metastatic liver cancer, focusing on the involvement of this mechanism in therapy resistance.

The function and mechanism of PSMD14 in promoting progression and resistance to anlotinib in osteosarcoma

BACKGROUND

Osteosarcoma is a rare bone malignancy that frequently affects adolescents and poses formidable obstacles in its advanced stages. Studies revealed that PSMD14 may be a viable osteosarcoma treatment target. However, PSMD14's function and mechanism in osteosarcoma remain unknown. This study aimed to examine the function and mechanism of PSMD14 in the biological behavior of osteosarcoma and its role in anlotinib resistance.

METHODS

Western blotting, qRT-PCR, and immunohistochemistry (IHC) studies were used to examine PSMD14 levels. The role of PSMD14 in the malignant phenotype of osteosarcoma and its molecular pathway was explored by a series of studies, including Western blotting, cell amplification assay, transwell assay, and tumor growth. Furthermore, a series of in vitro investigations were done to determine the effect of PSMD14 on anlotinib-resistant osteosarcoma cell lines.

RESULTS

PSMD14 expression was elevated in osteosarcoma tissues compared to normal tissues. Overexpression of PSMD14 was associated with osteosarcoma patients' pathological grade and clinical stage, and PSMD14 was an independent poor prognostic factor. PSMD14 knockdown inhibits in vitro cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and in vivo tumor growth. PSMD14 knockdown has the potential to downregulate the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, which was regarded as one of the key mechanisms promoting tumor growth. PSMD14 was likewise overexpressed in anlotinib-resistant OS cell lines, and its knockdown not only reduced the proliferation, migration, and invasion of subline cells and triggered cell apoptosis. Importantly, combination therapy with anlotinib enhanced these effects.

CONCLUSIONS

PSMD14 is substantially expressed in osteosarcoma and may be an independent risk factor associated with poor prognosis. It can promote tumor progression and anlotinib resistance in osteosarcoma and may promote osteosarcoma progression by modulating PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway.

A Novel Scoring Model of Deubiquitination Patterns Predicts Prognosis and Immunotherapeutic Response in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Aberrant expression of deubiquitinases (DUBs) is significantly associated with tumorigenesis. However, the precise impact of deubiquitination on the tumour microenvironment (TME) and immunotherapy in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains unclear. In this study, we comprehensively characterized the transcriptional and genetic alterations of 26 overall survival (OS)-related DUBs in HCC. The consensus clustering algorithm was used to identify patients with distinct deubiquitination patterns. We then established a DUBscore model using the principal component analysis (PCA) algorithm to quantify the deubiquitination patterns of individual HCC patients. Finally, we performed weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA) to identify the key DUBs. Consequently, three distinct deubiquitination patterns were identified, each showing significant differences in the characteristics of the TME, immune response, and clinical prognosis. Further analysis revealed that the DUBscore was an independent prognostic factor and could predict the response to immunotherapy for patients with HCC. Ultimately, BRCC3 was identified as a key DUB based on the DUBscore, which was significantly overexpressed in tumour tissues, as confirmed by qRT‒PCR and immunohistochemistry (IHC). We analysed the distribution and expression of BRCC3 in various types of immune cells using single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq). In conclusion, our study revealed the crucial role of deubiquitination patterns in shaping TME complexity and diversity. A more personalized and effective antitumour immunotherapy strategy can be developed by utilizing the DUBscore model to identify deubiquitination patterns in individual HCC patients. Our findings also highlight that BRCC3 may serve as a potential therapeutic target in HCC and a predictive marker for immunotherapeutic response.

A novel immunogenic cell death-related genes signature for predicting prognosis, immune landscape and immunotherapy effect in hepatocellular carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

Immunogenic cell death (ICD) has emerged as a promising strategy to activate the adaptive immune response, modulate the tumor microenvironment (TME) and enhance the efficacy of immune therapy. However, the relationship between ICD and TME reprogramming in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains poorly understood.

METHODS

Transcriptional profiles and clinical spectrum of 486 HCC patients were obtained from TCGA and GEO databases. We utilized consensus clustering analysis to construct two distinct molecular subtypes and established an ICD-based scoring system (named ICD score) via WGCNA and LASSO Cox regression to predict the prognosis of the HCC cohort. Then we employed CIBERSORT and ESTIMATE methods to analyze the immune landscape of ICD score in HCC. Subsequently, the immunophenoscore (IPS) and tumor immune dysfunction and rejection (TIDE) analyses were performed to determine whether the ICD score could influence the immune therapeutic effect. Based on the ICD scoring system, a novel nomogram was generated to provide a numerical probability of HCC patients' overall survival (OS).

RESULTS

We identified two independent ICD clusters (cluster A/B), and cluster B possessed a worse prognosis and higher immune cell infiltration. Using ICD scoring system, the HCC patients were divided into high- and low-ICD-score groups. Through integrative analyses, the high-ICD cohort owned advanced TNM stage, high pathologic grade and increased suppressive immune cell enrichment. We developed a nomogram containing the ICD score, demonstrating a high predictive accuracy with a C-index of 0.703. We further discovered that PSMD2 and PSMD14 could serve as ICD-associated prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets in HCC.

CONCLUSION

The ICD score exhibits a high degree of reliability for predicting prognosis and may provide valuable guidance for the selection of immunotherapy for HCC patients. This novel scoring system enables the estimation of clinical immunotherapy response for HCC patients, offering new opportunities for personalized immunotherapy.

POH1 facilitates pancreatic carcinogenesis through MYC-driven acinar-to-ductal metaplasia and is a potential therapeutic target

Pancreatic acinar cells undergo acinar-to-ductal metaplasia (ADM), a necessary process for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) initiation. However, the regulatory role of POH1, a deubiquitinase linked to several types of cancer, in ADM and PDAC is unclear. In this study, we investigated the role of POH1 in ADM and PDAC using murine models. Our findings suggest that pancreatic-specific deletion of Poh1 alleles attenuates ADM and impairs pancreatic carcinogenesis, improving murine survival. Mechanistically, POH1 deubiquitinates and stabilizes the MYC protein, which potentiates ADM and PDAC. Furthermore, POH1 is highly expressed in PDAC samples, and clinical evidence establishes a positive correlation between aberrantly expressed POH1 and poor prognosis in PDAC patients. Targeting POH1 with a specific small-molecule inhibitor significantly reduces pancreatic tumor formation, highlighting POH1 as a promising therapeutic target for PDAC treatment. Overall, POH1-mediated MYC deubiquitination is crucial for ADM and PDAC onset, and targeting POH1 could be an effective strategy for PDAC treatment, offering new avenues for PDAC targeted therapy.

Cellular senescence-related genes: predicting prognosis in hepatocellular carcinoma

Recent studies have shown that the high incidence and low cure rate of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) have not improved significantly. Surgery and liver transplantation are the mainstays of prolonging the survival of HCC patients. However, the surgical resection rate of HCC patients is very low, and even after radical surgical resection, the recurrence rate at 5 years postoperatively remains high and the prognosis is very poor, so more treatment options are urgently needed. Increasing evidence suggests that cellular senescence is not only related to cancer development but may also be one of its primary driving factors. We aimed to establish a prognostic signature of senescence-associated genes to predict the prognosis and therapeutic response of HCC patients. The aim of this study was to develop a risk model associated with cellular senescence and to search for potential strategies to treat HCC. We divided HCC patients into two clusters and identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between clusters. In this study, low-risk patients had a better prognosis, higher levels of immune cell infiltration, and better efficacy to fluorouracil, Paclitaxel and Cytarabine chemotherapy compared to high-risk patients. To further identify potential biomarkers for HCC, we further validated the expression levels of the four signature genes in HCC and neighbouring normal tissues by in vitro experiments. In conclusion, we identified and constructed a relevant prognostic signature, which performed well in predicting the survival and treatment response of HCC patients. This helps to differentiate between low-score and high-risk HCC, and the results may contribute to precise treatment protocols in clinical practice.

RNF173 suppresses RAF/MEK/ERK signaling to regulate invasion and metastasis via GRB2 ubiquitination in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

The role of the membrane-associated RING-CH (MARCH) family in carcinogenesis has been widely studied, but the member of this family, RNF173, has not yet been thoroughly explored in the context of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

METHODS

With the use of an HCC tissue microarray and IHC staining, we aim to determine the differential expression of RNF173 in HCC patients and its clinical significance. The biological role of RNF173 is investigated through in vitro and in vivo experiments. RNA sequencing, mass spectrometry, and immunoprecipitation are performed to uncover the underlying mechanism of RNF173's impact on the development of HCC.

RESULTS

The mRNA and protein levels of RNF173 were significantly lower in HCC tissues than in normal tissues. HCC patients with low RNF173 expression had shorter overall survival and recurrence-free survival, and RNF173 was significantly correlated with tumor number, tumor capsule, tumor differentiation, and BCLC stage. In addition, in vitro and in vivo experiments showed that RNF173 downregulation exacerbated tumor progression, including migration, invasion, and proliferation. GRB2 is a key molecule in the RAF/MEK/ERK pathway. RNF173 inhibits the RAF/MEK/ERK signaling by ubiquitinating and degrading GRB2, thereby suppressing HCC cell proliferation, invasion and migration. Combining clinical samples, we found that HCC patients with high RNF173 and low GRB2 expression had the best prognosis.

CONCLUSION

RNF173 inhibits the invasion and metastasis of HCC by ubiquitinating and degrading GRB2, thereby suppressing the RAF/MEK/ERK signaling pathway. RNF173 is an independent risk factor for the survival and recurrence of HCC patients. RNF173 may serve as a novel prognostic molecule and potential therapeutic target for HCC. Video Abstract Graphical abstract Model of RNF173 on RAF/MEK/ERK signaling. RNF173 knockdown resulted in impaired ubiquitination and degradation of GRB2, leading to the activation of the RAF/MEK/ERK signaling pathway and promotion of invasion and metastasis in HCC cells.

PSMD8 can serve as potential biomarker and therapeutic target of the PSMD family in ovarian cancer: based on bioinformatics analysis and in vitro validation

BACKGROUND

The ubiquity-proteasome system is an indispensable mechanism for regulating intracellular protein degradation, thereby affecting human antigen processing, signal transduction, and cell cycle regulation. We used bioinformatics database to predict the expression and related roles of all members of the PSMD family in ovarian cancer. Our findings may provide a theoretical basis for early diagnosis, prognostic assessment, and targeted therapy of ovarian cancer.

METHODS

GEPIA, cBioPortal, and Kaplan-Meier Plotter databases were used to analyze the mRNA expression levels, gene variation, and prognostic value of PSMD family members in ovarian cancer. PSMD8 was identified as the member with the best prognostic value. The TISIDB database was used to analyze the correlation between PSMD8 and immunity, and the role of PSMD8 in ovarian cancer tissue was verified by immunohistochemical experiments. The relationship of PSMD8 expression with clinicopathological parameters and survival outcomes of ovarian cancer patients was analyzed. The effects of PSMD8 on malignant biological behaviors of invasion, migration, and proliferation of ovarian cancer cells were studied by in vitro experiments.

RESULTS

The expression levels of PSMD8/14 mRNA in ovarian cancer tissues were significantly higher than those in normal ovarian tissues, and the expression levels of PSMD2/3/4/5/8/11/12/14 mRNA were associated with prognosis. Up-regulation of PSMD4/8/14 mRNA expression was associated with poor OS, and the up-regulation of PSMD2/3/5/8 mRNA expression was associated with poor PFS in patients with ovarian serous carcinomas. Gene function and enrichment analysis showed that PSMD8 is mainly involved in biological processes such as energy metabolism, DNA replication, and protein synthesis. Immunohistochemical experiments showed that PSMD8 was mainly expressed in the cytoplasm and the expression level was correlated with FIGO stage. Patients with high PSMD8 expression had poor prognosis. Overexpression of PSMD8 significantly enhanced the proliferation, migration, and invasion abilities in ovarian cancer cells.

CONCLUSION

We observed different degrees of abnormal expression of members of PSMD family in ovarian cancer. Among these, PSMD8 was significantly overexpressed in ovarian malignant tissue, and was associated with poor prognosis. PSMDs, especially PSMD8, can serve as potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets in ovarian cancer.

A review of deubiquitinases and thier roles in tumorigenesis and development

Ubiquitin is a small protein that can be added onto target protein for inducing target degradation, thereby modulating the activity and stability of protein. Relatively, deubiquitinases (DUBs), a class catalase that can remove ubiquitin from substrate protein, provide a positive regulation of the protein amount at transcription level, post-translational modification, protein interaction, etc. The reversible and dynamic ubiquitination-deubiquitination process plays an essential role in maintaining protein homeostasis, which is critical to almost all the biological processes. Therefore, the metabolic dysregulation of deubiquitinases often lead to serious consequences, including the growth and metastasis of tumors. Accordingly, deubiquitinases can be served as key drug targets for the treatment of tumors. The small molecule inhibitors targeting deubiquitinases has become one of the hot spots of anti-tumor drug research areas. This review concentrated on the function and mechanism of deubiquitinase system in the proliferation, apoptosis, metastasis and autophagy of tumor cells. The research status of small molecule inhibitors of specific deubiquitinases in tumor treatment is introduced, aiming to provide reference for the development of clinical targeted drugs.

Six immune-related promising biomarkers may promote hepatocellular carcinoma prognosis: a bioinformatics analysis and experimental validation

Background

Abnormal miRNA and mRNA expression and dysregulated immune microenvironment have been found to frequently induce the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in recent reports. In particular, the immune-related competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNA) mechanism plays a crucial role in HCC progression. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear.

Methods

Differentially expressed immune-related genes were obtained from the Immport, GEO, and TCGA databases. The mRNA and protein expression levels in HCC tissues and adjacent normal tissues were confirmed, and we further investigated the methylation levels of these biomarkers to explore their function. Then, the TIMER and TISCH databases were used to assess the relationship between immune infiltration and hub genes. Survival analysis and univariate and multivariate Cox models were used to evaluate the association between hub genes and HCC diagnosis. Hub gene expression was experimentally validated in six HCC cell lines and 15 HCC samples using qRT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. The hub genes were uploaded to DSigDB for drug prediction enrichment analysis.

Results

We identified that patients with abnormal miRNAs (hsa-miR-125b-5p and hsa-miR-21-5p) and their targeted genes (NTF3, PSMD14, CD320, and SORT1) had a worse prognosis. Methylation analysis of miRNA-targeted genes suggested that alteration of methylation levels is also a factor in the induction of tumorigenesis. We also found that the development of HCC progression caused by miRNA-mRNA interactions may be closely correlated with the infiltration of immunocytes. Moreover, the GSEA, GO, and KEGG analysis suggested that several common immune-related biological processes and pathways were related to miRNA-targeted genes. The results of qRT-PCR, immunohistochemistry, and western blotting were consistent with our bioinformatics results, suggesting that abnormal miRNAs and their targeted genes may affect HCC progression.

Conclusions

Briefly, our study systematically describes the mechanisms of miRNA-mRNA interactions in HCC and predicts promising biomarkers that are associated with immune filtration for HCC progression.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12935-023-02888-9.

A Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator, S4, Displays Robust Anti-cancer Activity on Hepatocellular Cancer Cells by Negatively Regulating PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathway

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major global health problem that often correlates with poor prognosis. Due to the insufficient therapy options with limited benefits, it is crucial to identify new therapeutic approaches to overcome HCC. One of the vital signaling pathways in organ homeostasis and male sexual development is Androgen Receptor (AR) signaling. Its activity affects several genes that contribute to cancer characteristics and have essential roles in cell cycle progression, proliferation, angiogenesis, and metastasis. AR signaling has been shown to be misregulated in many cancers, including HCC, suggesting that it might contribute to hepatocarcinogenesis. Targeting AR signaling using anti-androgens, AR inhibitors, or AR-degrading molecules is a powerful and promising strategy to defeat HCC. In this study, AR signaling was targeted by a novel Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator (SARM), S4, in HCC cells to evaluate its potential anti-cancer effect. To date, S4 activity in cancer has not been demonstrated, and our data unrevealed that S4 significantly impaired HCC growth, migration, proliferation, and induced apoptosis through inhibiting PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling. Since PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling is frequently activated in HCC and contributes to its aggressiveness and poor prognosis, its negative regulation by the downregulation of critical components via S4 was a prominent finding. Further studies are necessary to investigate the S4 action mechanism and anti-tumorigenic capacity in in-vivo.

Autophagy-Related Gene WD Repeat Domain 45B Promotes Tumor Proliferation and Migration of Hepatocellular Carcinoma through the Akt/mTOR Signaling Pathway

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a highly aggressive malignant tumor. It has been found that autophagy plays a role both as a tumor promoter and inhibitor in HCC carcinogenesis. However, the mechanism behind is still unveiled. This study aims to explore the functions and mechanism of the key autophagy-related proteins, to shed light on novel clinical diagnoses and treatment targets of HCC. Bioinformation analyses were performed by using data from public databases including TCGA, ICGC, and UCSC Xena. The upregulated autophagy-related gene WDR45B was identified and validated in human liver cell line LO2, human HCC cell line HepG2 and Huh-7. Immunohistochemical assay (IHC) was also performed on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues of 56 HCC patients from our pathology archives. By using qRT-PCR and Western blots we found that high expression of WDR45B influenced the Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. Autophagy marker LC3- II/LC3-I was downregulated, and p62/SQSTM1 was upregulated after knockdown of WDR45B. The effects of WDR45B knockdown on autophagy and Akt/mTOR signaling pathways can be reversed by the autophagy inducer rapamycin. Moreover, proliferation and migration of HCC can be inhibited after the knockdown of WDR45B through the CCK8 assay, wound-healing assay and Transwell cell migration and invasion assay. Therefore, WDR45B may become a novel biomarker for HCC prognosis assessment and potential target for molecular therapy.

Depletion of PSMD14 suppresses bladder cancer proliferation by regulating GPX4

Objective

The aim of this study was to investigate the role of deubiquitinase (DUB) 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 14 (PSMD14) in patients with bladder cancer.

Methods

From 2016 to 2018, 181 patients diagnosed with primary bladder cancer at the Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University were recruited. The expression of PSMD14 in bladder cancer tissues was tested by immunochemistry. The association between PSMD14 expression and clinical and pathological data and outcomes of bladder cancer patients was determined. Overexpression and knockdown cells were constructed to evaluate the effects of PSMD14 on proliferation of bladder cancer cells.

Results

Our results showed that PSMD14 was significantly overexpressed in bladder cancer tissues compared to adjacent non-tumor tissues (76.24% vs 23.76%, P = 0.02). The expression of PSMD14 was significantly higher in patients with larger tumor diameters (85.14% vs 70.09%, P = 0.019) and patients with a family history of cancer (92.16% vs 70.00%, P = 0.002). Patients with high expression of PSMD14 had poor disease-free survival (DFS) (HR = 2.89, 95% CI [1.247-6.711], P = 0.013). Gain and loss of function experiments demonstrated that PSMD14 deficiency inhibited bladder cancer cell proliferation. Additionally, depletion of PSMD14 suppressed bladder cancer cell growth via down-regulation of GPX4, and the promotion of PSMD14-induced cell growth was observably reversed by the GPX4 inhibitor RSL3.

Conclusion

We determined that PSMD14 is highly expressed in bladder cancer tissues, and that PSMD14 expression correlated with poor disease-free survival. Depletion of PSMD14 could inhibit the proliferation of bladder cancer cells through the downregulation of GPX4. Therefore, PSMD14 may be an effective target for the treatment of bladder cancer.

Novel insights into the non-canonical roles of PSMD14/POH1/Rpn11 in proteostasis and in the modulation of cancer progression

PSMD14/POH1/Rpn11 plays a crucial role in cellular homeostasis. PSMD14 is a structural subunit of the lid subcomplex of the proteasome 19S regulatory particle with constitutive deubiquitinase activity. Canonically, PSMD14 removes the full ubiquitin chains with K48-linkages by hydrolyzing the isopeptide bond between the substrate and the C-terminus of the first ubiquitin, a crucial step for the entry of substrates into the catalytic barrel of the 20S proteasome and their subsequent degradation, all in context of the 26S proteasome. However, more recent discoveries indicate PSMD14 DUB activity is not only coupled to the translocation of substrates into the core of 20S proteasome. During the assembly of the lid, activity of PSMD14 has been detected in the context of the heterodimer with PSMD7. Additionally, assembly of the lid subcomplex occurs as an independent event of the base subcomplex and 20S proteasome. This feature opens the possibility that the regulatory particle, free lid subcomplex or the heterodimer PSMD14-PSMD7 might play other physiological roles including a positive function on protein stability through deubiquitination. Here we discuss scenarios that could enhance this PSMD14 non-canonical pathway, the potential impact in preventing degradation of substrates by autophagy highlighting the main findings that support this hypothesis. Finally, we discuss why this information should be investigated in biomedicine specifically with focus on cancer progression to design new therapeutic strategies against the lid subcomplex and the heterodimer PSMD14-PSMD7, highlighting PSMD14 as a druggable target for cancer therapy.

DDX24 regulates the chemosensitivity of hepatocellular carcinoma to sorafenib via mediating the expression of SNORA18

Sorafenib (SFN) is a multi-kinase inhibitor drug for the treatment of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), but its limited efficacy is a major obstacle to the clinical outcomes of patients with HCC. We aimed to explore a novel molecular mechanism underlying the chemosensitivity of HCC to SFN, and to identify a promising therapeutic target for HCC treatment. In this study, bioinformatic analysis revealed that DDX24 was associated with poor survival in HCC cases, and significantly related to the pathways modulating tumor development. DDX24 regulated HCC cell proliferation and migration potentials. Moreover, reduction of DDX24 promoted the sorafenib-mediated inhibition of HCC cell growth and migration, the elevation of sorafenib-induced HCC cell apoptosis. DDX24 overexpression suppressed the inhibitory effect of SFN on cell proliferation and migration and reduced the apoptosis induced by SFN. Further, DDX24, combined with SFN treatment, presented a synergistic enhancement of the sensitivity of SFN to the growth and migration of HCC cells via AKT/ERK and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) pathways, and that it modulated apoptosis via the caspase/PARP pathway. Mechanistically, SNORA18 served as a target gene for DDX24, regulating the chemosensitivity of sorafenib-treated HCC cells. Furthermore, SNORA18 knockdown or overexpression could partially reverse the inhibition or elevation of cell viability, colony formation and migration induced by DDX24 in sorafenib-treated HCC cells, respectively. Collectively, our results suggest that DDX24 regulates the chemosensitivity of HCC to SFN by mediating the expression of SNORA18, which may act as an effective therapeutic target for improving SFN efficiency in HCC treatment.

Research Progress for Targeting Deubiquitinases in Gastric Cancers

Gastric cancers (GCs) are malignant tumors with a high incidence that threaten global public health. Despite advances in GC diagnosis and treatment, the prognosis remains poor. Therefore, the mechanisms underlying GC progression need to be identified to develop prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets. Ubiquitination, a post-translational modification that regulates the stability, activity, localization, and interactions of target proteins, can be reversed by deubiquitinases (DUBs), which can remove ubiquitin monomers or polymers from modified proteins. The dysfunction of DUBs has been closely linked to tumorigenesis in various cancer types, and targeting certain DUBs may provide a potential option for cancer therapy. Multiple DUBs have been demonstrated to function as oncogenes or tumor suppressors in GC. In this review, we summarize the DUBs involved in GC and their associated upstream regulation and downstream mechanisms and present the benefits of targeting DUBs for GC treatment, which could provide new insights for GC diagnosis and therapy.

PSMA1 mediates tumor progression and poor prognosis of gastric carcinoma by deubiquitinating and stabilizing TAZ

The deubiquitinating enzyme family in tumor progression play important role in intracellular protein degradation. The proteasome subunit alpha type 1 (PSMA1) has been reported to act as an oncogene in several human cancers. The present study aimed to reveal the functional significance of PSMA1 in gastric cancer (GC) progression and the underlying mechanisms. The expression of PSMA1 in human GC samples and GC cell lines was examined by western blot analysis, real-time PCR, immunohistochemistry (IHC), and in vitro ubiquitination assays and established a xenograft mouse model. We found that PSMA1 was upregulated in GC and promoted proliferation, migration and invasion in GC cells. Herein, we report transcriptional co-activator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ) was a downstream gene of PSMA1. Mechanistically, PSMA1 directly interacted with and stabilized TAZ via deubiquitination in GC. Furthermore, we found that TAZ was the essential mediator of PSMA1-modulated oncogenic activity in vitro and in vivo. Examination of clinical samples confirmed that elevated mediators of PSMA1, concomitant with increased TAZ abundance, correlate with human GC progression. These data suggested that PSMA1 promotes GC progression and proliferation by deubiquitinating TAZ. PSMA1 promotes GC progression and proliferation regarding PSMA1-mediated deubiquitinating enzyme activity and suggest potential therapeutic targets for GC management.

Identification and validation of immune and prognosis-related genes in hepatocellular carcinoma: A review

PURPOSE

Bioinformatics methods were used to identify the key genes associated with the immune microenvironment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) to construct an immune risk prognostic model (IRPM) and to study the correlation between IRPM's risk groups and immune characteristics of patients with HCC.

METHODS

HCC transcriptome sequencing information was searched for immune-related genes (IRGs) that were regularly expressed in cancer tissues. The IRGs, which were strongly linked to overall survival were screened; the prognostic characteristics model was constructed using Cox regression analysis. IRPM's independent prognostic value was explored; Kaplan-Meier survival and receiver-operating characteristic curves were used to determine the model prediction ability in the led-to queue.

RESULTS

Patients in the high-risk group (HRG) showed significantly poor outcomes. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis revealed factors involved in both the HRG and low risk group. Immune-related hub genes (IRHGs) and drug sensitivity expression levels revealed that all IRHGs were correlated with drug sensitivity for certain chemotherapy drugs.

CONCLUSION

The study results may serve as a reference for improving prognosis, early screening, and immunotherapy in patients with HCC.

A cancer stem cell associated gene signature for predicting overall survival of hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most prevalent type of primary liver cancer characterized by high mortality and morbidity rate. The lack of effective treatments and the high frequency of recurrence lead to poor prognosis of patients with HCC. Therefore, it is important to develop robust prediction tools for predicting the prognosis of HCC. Recent studies have shown that cancer stem cells (CSC) participate in HCC progression. The aim of this study was to explore the prognostic value of CSC-related genes and establish a prediction model based on data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. In this study, 475 CSC-related genes were obtained from the Molecular Signature Database and 160 differentially expressed CSC-related genes in HCC patients were identified using the limma R package in the TCGA database. A total of 79 CSC-related genes were found to be associated with overall survival (OS). Using the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) and multivariate Cox regressions, a 3-gene signature (RAB10, TCOF1, and PSMD14) was constructed. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves and Kaplan-Meier survival curves were constructed to test the prediction performance of the signature. Performance of the signature was validated using the International Cancer Genome Consortium (ICGC) dataset. In addition, immune feature and functional enrichment analyses were carried out to explore the underlying mechanisms. Moreover, a co-expression network was constructed using the weighted gene correlation network analysis (WGCNA) method to select genes significantly associated with risk scores in HCC in the TCGA dataset. The SGO2 gene was found to be significantly associated with risk scores of HCC. In vitro experiments revealed that it can promote HCC cell proliferation. Therefore, SGO2 may be a potential therapeutic target for HCC treatment. The constructed nomogram can help clinicians make decisions about HCC treatment.

Molecular docking and in vitro experiments verified that kaempferol induced apoptosis and inhibited human HepG2 cell proliferation by targeting BAX, CDK1, and JUN

Hepatocellular carcinoma, as a common liver cirrhosis complication, has become the sixth most common cancer worldwide, and its increasing incidence has resulted in considerable medical and economic burdens. As a natural polyphenolic compound, kaempferol has exhibits a wide range of antitumor activities against multiple cancer targets. In this study, the Autodock software was used for molecular docking to simulate the interaction process between kaempferol and HCC targets and the PyMOL software was used for visualization. Proliferation of kaempferol HepG2 cells under the effect of kaempferol was detected using Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay, and the apoptosis rate of HepG2 cells was detected using flow cytometry. The expressions of proteins BAX, CDK1, and JUN protein expressions were detected by Western blot. Molecular docking found that the kaempferol ligand has 3 rotatable bonds, 6 nonpolar hydrogen atoms, and 12 aromatic carbon atoms, and can form complexes with the kaempferol targets P53, BAX, AR, CDK1, and JUN through electrostatic energy. GO (Gene Ontology) enrichment analysis suggests that kaempferol regulates the biological function of hepatocellular carcinoma cells and is related to apoptosis. Cell Counting Kit-8 assay suggested that Kaempferol can significantly inhibited HepG2 cell proliferation, and the inhibition rate increased with the increase in drug concentration and incubation time. Moreover, kaempferol can promoted HepG2 cell apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner. This compound upregulated BAX and JUN expression and downregulated CDK1 expression. Thus, Kaempferol can promote HepG2 cell apoptosis, and the regulatory mechanism may be related to the regulation of the expression levels of the apoptosis-related proteins BAX, CDK1, and JUN.

Deubiquitinases in Cancers: Aspects of Proliferation, Metastasis, and Apoptosis

Simple Summary

This review summarizes the current DUBs findings that correlate with the most common cancers in the world (liver, breast, prostate, colorectal, pancreatic, and lung cancers). The DUBs were further classified by their biological functions in terms of proliferation, metastasis, and apoptosis. The work provides an updated of the current findings, and could be used as a quick guide for researchers to identify target DUBs in cancers.

Abstract

Deubiquitinases (DUBs) deconjugate ubiquitin (UBQ) from ubiquitylated substrates to regulate its activity and stability. They are involved in several cellular functions. In addition to the general biological regulation of normal cells, studies have demonstrated their critical roles in various cancers. In this review, we evaluated and grouped the biological roles of DUBs, including proliferation, metastasis, and apoptosis, in the most common cancers in the world (liver, breast, prostate, colorectal, pancreatic, and lung cancers). The current findings in these cancers are summarized, and the relevant mechanisms and relationship between DUBs and cancers are discussed. In addition to highlighting the importance of DUBs in cancer biology, this study also provides updated information on the roles of DUBs in different types of cancers.

Prognostic model of immune-related genes for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma

Background

Immune-related genes (IRGs) are closely connected to the occurrence and development of tumors. Their influence on the prognosis of patients with HCC, however, remains unclear.

Methods

From the TCGA database, we integrated 365 liver cancer tissues and 50 normal tissues to identify differential immune genes related to prognosis. Multivariate COX analysis was used to establish a new prognostic index on account of IRGs, whereby risk score = (Expression level of HSPA4*0.022) + (Expression level of PSMD14*0.042) + (Expression level of RBP2*0.019) + (Expression level of MAPT*0.197) + (Expression level of TRAF3*0.146) + (Expression level of NDRG1*(0.006) + (Expression level of NRAS*0.027) + (Expression level of IL17D*0.075).

Results

The risk score was clearly correlated with an unfavorable survival rate and with clinical characteristics. By integrating the immune-related risk score model with clinical features, a nomogram was constructed to predict the survival rate of HCC patients (1-, 3- and 5-year AUC of 0.721, 0.747 and 0.781, respectively).

Conclusion

We have established a valuable prognostic risk score for HCC patients that may be a better predictor of survival than the present method. With the risk score's strong predictive value for immune cells and functions, it may provide clinical guidance for the diagnosis and prognosis of different immunophenotypes, and provide multiple therapeutic targets for the treatment of HCC patients based on subtype-specific immune molecules.

A Four-Cell-Senescence-Regulator-Gene Prognostic Index Verified by Genome-Wide CRISPR Can Depict the Tumor Microenvironment and Guide Clinical Treatment of Bladder Cancer

Bladder cancer (BCa) is the 10th most commonly diagnosed cancer worldwide, and cellular senescence is defined as a state of permanent cell cycle arrest and considered to play important roles in the development and progression of tumor. However, the comprehensive effect of senescence in BCa has not ever been systematically evaluated. Using the genome-wide CRISPR screening data acquired from DepMap (Cancer Dependency Map), senescence genes from the CellAge database, and gene expression data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), we screened out 12 senescence genes which might play critical roles in BCa. A four-cell-senescence-regulator-gene prognostic index was constructed using the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) and multivariate COX regression model. The transcriptomic data and clinical information of BCa patients were downloaded from TCGA and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO). We randomly divided the patients in TCGA cohort into training and testing cohorts and calculated the risk score according to the expression of the four senescence genes. The validity of this risk score was validated in the testing cohort (TCGA) and validation cohort (GSE13507). The Kaplan–Meier curves revealed a significant difference in the survival outcome between the high- and low-risk score groups. A nomogram including the risk score and other clinical factors (age, gender, stage, and grade) was established with better predictive capacity of OS in 1, 3, and 5 years. Besides, we found that patients in the high-risk group had higher tumor mutation burden (TMB); lower immune, stroma, and ESTIMATE scores; higher tumor purity; aberrant immune functions; and lower expression of immune checkpoints. We also performed gene set variation analysis (GSVA) and gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) to investigate the interaction between risk score and hallmark pathways and found that a high risk score was connected with activation of senescence-related pathways. Furthermore, we found that a high risk score was related to better response to immunotherapy and chemotherapy. In conclusion, we identified a four-cell-senescence-regulator-gene prognostic index in BCa and investigated its relationship with TMB, the immune landscape of tumor microenvironment (TME), and response to immunotherapy and chemotherapy, and we also established a nomogram to predict the prognosis of patients with BCa.

Mechanisms orchestrating the enzymatic activity and cellular functions of deubiquitinases

Deubiquitinases (DUBs) are required for the reverse reaction of ubiquitination and act as major regulators of ubiquitin signaling processes. Emerging evidence suggests that these enzymes are regulated at multiple levels in order to ensure proper and timely substrate targeting and to prevent the adverse consequences of promiscuous deubiquitination. The importance of DUB regulation is highlighted by disease-associated mutations that inhibit or activate DUBs, deregulating their ability to coordinate cellular processes. Here, we describe the diverse mechanisms governing protein stability, enzymatic activity, and function of DUBs. In particular, we outline how DUBs are regulated by their protein domains and interacting partners. Intramolecular interactions can promote protein stability of DUBs, influence their subcellular localization, and/or modulate their enzymatic activity. Remarkably, these intramolecular interactions can induce self-deubiquitination to counteract DUB ubiquitination by cognate E3 ubiquitin ligases. In addition to intramolecular interactions, DUBs can also oligomerize and interact with a wide variety of cellular proteins, thereby forming obligate or facultative complexes that regulate their enzymatic activity and function. The importance of signaling and post-translational modifications in the integrated control of DUB function will also be discussed. While several DUBs are described with respect to the multiple layers of their regulation, the tumor suppressor BAP1 will be outlined as a model enzyme whose localization, stability, enzymatic activity, and substrate recognition are highly orchestrated by interacting partners and post-translational modifications.

The prognostic role of PSMD14 in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

PURPOSE

PSMD14 is an essential protein for proteasomal degradation. Inhibition of this protein disrupts homeostasis and inhibits cancer cell viability. Overexpression of PSMD14 was associated with advanced cancer characteristics and a worse prognosis in various carcinomas. This study aimed to analyze PSMD14 copy number variation, mRNA and protein expression in HNSCC, and its role as an independent prognostic biomarker.

METHODS

PSMD14 mRNA expression and copy number variations were analyzed in "The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA)" in 510 patients. Protein expression was evaluated using immunohistochemistry in a second cohort including 115 patients. PSMD14 levels were analyzed for correlation with clinicopathological data, overall and disease-free survival.

RESULTS

PSMD14 mRNA expression and copy number variation were high in 44 and 50% of patients, respectively. Protein expression of PSMD14 was high in 56%. In both cohorts, high PSMD14 levels were associated with advanced staging. High PSMD14 mRNA expression was additionally associated with a worse prognosis in univariable analysis. However, after correction for possible confounders, PSMD14 mRNA was not an independent prognostic marker.

CONCLUSION

PSMD14 is commonly expressed in HNSCC patients and associated with advanced stages. High expression of PSMD14 mRNA was associated with a worse outcome. However, this may be a result of the association of PSMD14 with poor prognosticators. Based on our study, further evaluation of PSMD14 as a prognostic marker and potential therapeutic target is warranted.

Hes-related family BHLH transcription factor with YRPW motif 1-activated proteasome 26S subunit, non-ATPase 14 regulates trophoblast function and endometrial angiogenesis

Proteasome 26S subunit, non-ATPase 14 (PSMD14) expression has been previously reported to be reduced in patients with pre-eclampsia (PE). The present study investigated the interaction network associated with the role of PSMD14 in PE. Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and western blotting were performed to determine the transfection efficacy following plasmid-based gene transfer of PSMD14 into HTR-8/SVneo cells. Cell proliferation was measured using an MTT assay and 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine staining. The expression of proliferation-related proteins, including Ki67 and PCNA, was determined using western blotting. Wound healing and Transwell assays were performed to measure cell invasion and migration, whilst the expression of migration-related proteins, including MMP2 and MMP9, was measured using western blotting. The angiogenesis of HUVECs following treatment with the HTR-8/SVneo cell culture supernatant was examined using tube formation assay. Following overexpression of Hes-related family BHLH transcription factor with YRPW motif 1 (HEY1) by transfection of pcDNA3.1 expression vector containing full-length human HEY1 or knockdown by transfection of shRNA plasmids targeting HEY1, the expression of HEY1 and PSMD14 was detected using RT-qPCR and western blotting. The potential interaction between HEY1 and the PSMD14 promoter was examined using dual-luciferase reporter and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays. PSMD14 overexpression was found to promote the proliferation, invasion, migration of HTR-8/SVneo cells and the angiogenesis of HUVECs following treatment with the HTR-8/SVneo cell culture supernatant, accompanied by enhanced expression of proliferation and migration-related proteins. Furthermore, the transcription factor HEY1 activated the expression of PSMD14. Knocking down HEY1 expression partially reversed the promoting effects of PSMD14 overexpression on the proliferation, invasion, migration, angiogenesis, proliferation and migration-related protein expression in trophoblasts. In conclusion, HEY1-activated PSMD14 promoted trophoblast proliferation, invasion and angiogenesis. Therefore, HEY1 and PSMD14 can be potential targets for PE treatment.

A Data Science Approach for the Identification of Molecular Signatures of Aggressive Cancers

The main hallmarks of cancer include sustaining proliferative signaling and resisting cell death. We analyzed the genes of the WNT pathway and seven cross-linked pathways that may explain the differences in aggressiveness among cancer types. We divided six cancer types (liver, lung, stomach, kidney, prostate, and thyroid) into classes of high (H) and low (L) aggressiveness considering the TCGA data, and their correlations between Shannon entropy and 5-year overall survival (OS). Then, we used principal component analysis (PCA), a random forest classifier (RFC), and protein-protein interactions (PPI) to find the genes that correlated with aggressiveness. Using PCA, we found GRB2, CTNNB1, SKP1, CSNK2A1, PRKDC, HDAC1, YWHAZ, YWHAB, and PSMD2. Except for PSMD2, the RFC analysis showed a different list, which was CAD, PSMD14, APH1A, PSMD2, SHC1, TMEFF2, PSMD11, H2AFZ, PSMB5, and NOTCH1. Both methods use different algorithmic approaches and have different purposes, which explains the discrepancy between the two gene lists. The key genes of aggressiveness found by PCA were those that maximized the separation of H and L classes according to its third component, which represented 19% of the total variance. By contrast, RFC classified whether the RNA-seq of a tumor sample was of the H or L type. Interestingly, PPIs showed that the genes of PCA and RFC lists were connected neighbors in the PPI signaling network of WNT and cross-linked pathways.

Proteomic-Based Machine Learning Analysis Reveals PYGB as a Novel Immunohistochemical Biomarker to Distinguish Inverted Urothelial Papilloma From Low-Grade Papillary Urothelial Carcinoma With Inverted Growth

Background

The molecular biology of inverted urothelial papilloma (IUP) as a precursor disease of urothelial carcinoma is poorly understood. Furthermore, the overlapping histology between IUP and papillary urothelial carcinoma (PUC) with inverted growth is a diagnostic pitfall leading to frequent misdiagnoses.

Methods

To identify the oncologic significance of IUP and discover a novel biomarker for its diagnosis, we employed mass spectrometry-based proteomic analysis of IUP, PUC, and normal urothelium (NU). Machine learning analysis shortlisted candidate proteins, while subsequent immunohistochemical validation was performed in an independent sample cohort.

Results

From the overall proteomic landscape, we found divergent ‘NU-like’ (low-risk) and ‘PUC-like’ (high-risk) signatures in IUP. The latter were characterized by altered metabolism, biosynthesis, and cell–cell interaction functions, indicating oncologic significance. Further machine learning-based analysis revealed SERPINH1, PKP2, and PYGB as potential diagnostic biomarkers discriminating IUP from PUC. The immunohistochemical validation confirmed PYGB as a specific biomarker to distinguish between IUP and PUC with inverted growth.

Conclusion

In conclusion, we suggest PYGB as a promising immunohistochemical marker for IUP diagnosis in routine practice.

Upregulated Proteasome Subunits in COVID-19 Patients: A Link with Hypoxemia, Lymphopenia and Inflammation

Severe COVID-19 disease leads to hypoxemia, inflammation and lymphopenia. Viral infection induces cellular stress and causes the activation of the innate immune response. The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is highly implicated in viral immune response regulation. The main function of the proteasome is protein degradation in its active form, which recognises and binds to ubiquitylated proteins. Some proteasome subunits have been reported to be upregulated under hypoxic and hyperinflammatory conditions. Here, we conducted a prospective cohort study of COVID-19 patients (n = 44) and age-and sex-matched controls (n = 20). In this study, we suggested that hypoxia could induce the overexpression of certain genes encoding for subunits from the α and β core of the 20S proteasome and from regulatory particles (19S and 11S) in COVID-19 patients. Furthermore, the gene expression of proteasome subunits was associated with lymphocyte count reduction and positively correlated with inflammatory molecular and clinical markers. Given the importance of the proteasome in maintaining cellular homeostasis, including the regulation of the apoptotic and pyroptotic pathways, these results provide a potential link between COVID-19 complications and proteasome gene expression.

Ameliorating role of microRNA-378 carried by umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells-released extracellular vesicles in mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis

BACKGROUND

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and their released extracellular vesicles (Evs) have shown protective effects against kidney diseases. This study aims to study the functions of umbilical cord MSCs-released Evs (ucMSC-Evs) and their implicated molecules in mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis (MsPGN).

METHODS

A rat model of MsPGN was induced by anti-Thy-1.1, and rat mesangial cells (rMCs) HBZY-1 were treated with PDGF-BB/DD to mimic MsPGN condition in vitro. Rats and cells were treated with different doses of ucMSC-Evs, and then the pathological changes in renal tissues and proliferation of rMCs were determined. Differentially expressed microRNAs (miRNAs) after Evs treatment were screened by microarray analysis. The interactions among miR-378, PSMD14, and TGFBR1 were analyzed. Gain- and loss-of function studies of miR-378 and PSMD14 were performed to explore their effects on tissue hyperplasia and rMC proliferation and their interactions with the TGF-β1/Smad2/3 signaling pathway.

RESULTS

The ucMSC-Evs treatment ameliorated mesangial hyperplasia and fibrosis in rat renal tissues and suppressed the aberrant proliferation of rMCs in a dose-dependent manner. miR-378 was the most upregulated miRNA in tissues and cells after ucMSC-Evs treatment. miR-378 directly targeted PSMD14, and PSMD14 maintained the stability of TGFBR1 through deubiquitination modification, which led to TGF-β1/Smad2/3 activation. Either miR-378 knockdown or PSMD14 overexpression diminished the protective functions of ucMSC-Evs by activating the TGF-β1/Smad2/3 signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

UcMSC-Evs ameliorate pathological process in MsPGN through the delivery of miR-378, which suppresses PSMD14-mediated TGFBR1 stability and inactivates the TGF-β1/Smad2/3 signaling pathway to reduce tissue hyperplasia and rMC proliferation. Video abstract.

PSMD14 Targeting Triggers Paraptosis in Breast Cancer Cells by Inducing Proteasome Inhibition and Ca2+ Imbalance

PSMD14, a subunit of the 19S regulatory particles of the 26S proteasome, was recently identified as a potential prognostic marker and therapeutic target in diverse human cancers. Here, we show that the silencing and pharmacological blockade of PSMD14 in MDA-MB 435S breast cancer cells induce paraptosis, a non-apoptotic cell death mode characterized by extensive vacuolation derived from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria. The PSMD14 inhibitor, capzimin (CZM), inhibits proteasome activity but differs from the 20S proteasome subunit-inhibiting bortezomib (Bz) in that it does not induce aggresome formation or Nrf1 upregulation, which underlie Bz resistance in cancer cells. In addition to proteasome inhibition, the release of Ca²⁺ from the ER into the cytosol critically contributes to CZM-induced paraptosis. Induction of paraptosis by targeting PSMD14 may provide an attractive therapeutic strategy against cancer cells resistant to proteasome inhibitors or pro-apoptotic drugs.

Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 4 is expected to be a therapeutic target for hepatocellular carcinoma metastasis using integrated bioinformatic analysis

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. HCC cells possess biological characteristics of high invasion and metastasis. In this respect, to prevent cancer cell invasion and metastasis and early active intervention, we herein screened through the TCGA database for further prognostic analysis including overall survival and disease-free survival . The Kaplan-Meier curve suggested that Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 4 (CDK4) might be an independent prognostic factor for HCC. Moreover, we performed mRNA expression analysis to measure CDK4 levels in normal liver tissues and HCC tissues, and immunohistochemistry analysis to detect protein level of CDK4 in Non-tumor tissue and HCC tissues . Our findings indicated that the expression of CDK4 was significantly higher in tumor tissues compared with Non-tumor tissue in HCC, which increased from HCC stage 1 to 3. Furthermore, the results of transwell-assay indicated that knocking down CDK4 significantly suppresses the invasion and migration of HCC cells, and the results of bioinformatics analysis revealed that genes closely associated with CDK4 are potentially worthy of further investigation. Additionally, the results of Western Blot indicated CDK4 regulates epithelial mesenchymal transition in HCC,and CDK4 appears to regulate EMT and HCC progression via the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Collectively, this study found the key target gene through bioinformatic analysis and further functional validation through cell experiments. In particular, CDK4 is anticipated to become a crucial hub gene to snipe the metastasis of cancer cells in HCC.Abbreviations: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC);Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 4(CDK4);Genomic Data Commons (GDC); genes; EC, Endometrial cancer; GEO, gene expression omnibus; GO, Gene Ontology; GSEA, Gene set enrichment analysis; KEGG, Database; TCGA, The Cancer Genome Atlas; TSGs, tumor suppressor genes;epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT).

Deubiquitinase PSMD14 promotes ovarian cancer progression by decreasing enzymatic activity of PKM2

Dysregulation of deubiquitination has been reported to contribute to carcinogenesis. However, the function and mechanism of deubiquitinating enzyme 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 14 (PSMD14) in the progression of ovarian cancer (OV), the deadliest gynecological cancer, still remains to be characterized. The present study demonstrated that PSMD14 was overexpressed in OV tissues and its higher levels correlated with a higher International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) stage in OV patients. A high level of PSMD14 expression was related to poor survival in OV patients. Knockdown and overexpression experiments elucidated that PSMD14 stimulated OV cell proliferation, invasion, and migration in vitro. Repression of PSMD14 suppressed OV tumor growth in vivo. PSMD14 inhibitor O-phenanthroline (OPA) effectively attenuated malignant behaviors of OV cells in vitro and OV tumor growth in vivo. Mechanistically, we uncovered that PSMD14 was involved in post-translational regulation of pyruvate kinase M2 isoform (PKM2). PSMD14 decreased K63-linked ubiquitination on PKM2, downregulated the ratio of PKM2 tetramers to dimers and monomers, and subsequently diminished pyruvate kinase activity and induced nuclear translocation of PKM2, contributing to aerobic glycolysis in OV cells. Collectively, our findings highlight the potential roles of PSMD14 as a biomarker and therapeutic candidate for OV.

Hey1 promotes migration and invasion of melanoma cells via GRB2/PI3K/AKT signaling cascade

Increasing evidence indicates that Notch signaling regulates multiple intracellular biological processes in malignant melanoma. Whereas how Notch signaling is transduced to influence melanoma cell behaviors remains largely elusive. Here we show that the Notch signaling downstream target Hey1 promotes migration and invasion of melanoma cells via the GRB2/PI3K/AKT pathway. First, bioinformatics tools, immunohistochemistry, and Western blotting analysis showed that the expression of Hey1 is increased in melanoma. Then, both in vivo and in vitro experiments showed that Hey1 promotes the malignant behaviour of the melanoma cells. High-throughput RNA-sequencing analysis revealed that inhibition of Hey1 results in decreased GRB2 expression in melanoma cells. Last, functional experiments confirmed that Hey1 positively regulates GRB2/PI3K/AKT pathway to influence migration and invasion of melanoma cells. In summary, our results suggest that Hey1 promotes the invasion and metastasis of melanoma cells by regulating GRB2/PI3K/AKT pathway. Our study provides potential therapeutics in tumor biology.

Resveratrol inhibits the migration, invasion and epithelial-mesenchymal transition in liver cancer cells through up- miR-186-5p expression

To investigate the molecular mechanism of resveratrol inhibiting the metastasis of liver cancer . HepG2 and Huh7 cells were treated with different concentrations of resveratrol, and the cell viability was determined by CCK-8 assay to determine the optimal concentration of resveratrol for subsequent experiments. The expressions of miR-186-5p in liver cancer tissues and liver cancer cells were determined by quantitative real-time RT-PCR. The migration and invasion of HepG2 and Huh7 cells were detected by wound healing assay and Transwell assay, and the expression levels of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) related proteins were determined by Western blotting. Resveratrol with concentration of had no effect on the viability of HepG2 and Huh7 cells, so the concentration of resveratrol in subsequent experiments was 6.25 μmol/L. Resveratrol inhibited the wound healing and invasion of liver cancer cells; increased the expression of E-cadherin, and decreased the expression of vimentin and Twist1. The expression of miR-186-5p was significantly down-regulated in liver cancer tissues and cells compared with the adjacent tissues and normal liver cells (both <0.05). Furthermore, resveratrol induced the expression of miR-186-5p in liver cancer cells (both <0.01). Overexpression of miR-186-5p suppressed the migration, invasion and EMT of liver cancer cells. Knockdown of miR-186-5p blocked the inhibition effects of resveratrol on the migration, invasion and EMT of liver cancer cells. Resveratrol could inhibit the metastasis of liver cancer , which might be associated with up-regulating miR-186-5p.

Identification of PSMD14 as a potential novel prognosis biomarker and therapeutic target for osteosarcoma

BACKGROUND

Osteosarcoma is the most common primary bone tumor. The survival rate of osteosarcoma patients has not significantly increased in the past decades. Uncovering the mechanisms of malignancy, progression, and metastasis will shed light on the development of new therapeutic targets and treatment for osteosarcoma.

AIM

The aim of this study is to identify potential osteosarcoma biomarker and/or therapeutic targets by using integrated bioinformatics analysis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We utilized existing gene expression datasets to identify differential expressed genes (DEGs) that could serve as osteosarcoma biomarkers or even as therapeutic targets. We found 48 DEGs were overlapped in three datasets. Among these 48 DEGs, PSMD14 was on the top of the up-regulated gene list. We further found that higher PSMD14 expression was correlated with higher risk group (younger age group, ≤20.83 years of age), metastasis within 5 years and higher grade of tumor. Higher PSMD14 expression in osteosarcoma had positive correlation with higher infiltration of CD8+ T cells, neutrophils and myeloid dendritic cells. Kaplan-Myer survival data further revealed that higher expression of PSMD14 predicted significantly worse prognosis (p = .013). Gene set enrichment analysis was further performed for the DEGs related to PSMD14 in osteosarcoma. We found that lower PSMD14 expression group had more immune responses such as interferon γ, α responses, inflammation response etc. However, the higher PSMD14 expression group had more cell proliferation-related biological processes, such as G2M checkpoints and Myc targets. Through establishing protein-protein interaction networks using PSMD14 related DEGs, we identified 10 hub genes that were all ribosomal proteins. These hub genes may play roles in osteosarcoma tumorigenesis, progression and/or metastasis.

CONCLUSION

We identified PSMD14 gene as a possible osteosarcoma biomarker, and/or a possible therapeutic target.

GRB2 enforces homology-directed repair initiation by MRE11

DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair is initiated by MRE11 nuclease for both homology-directed repair (HDR) and alternative end joining (Alt-EJ). Here, we found that GRB2, crucial to timely proliferative RAS/MAPK pathway activation, unexpectedly forms a biophysically validated GRB2-MRE11 (GM) complex for efficient HDR initiation. GRB2-SH2 domain targets the GM complex to phosphorylated H2AX at DSBs. GRB2 K109 ubiquitination by E3 ubiquitin ligase RBBP6 releases MRE11 promoting HDR. RBBP6 depletion results in prolonged GM complex and HDR defects. GRB2 knockout increased MRE11-XRCC1 complex and Alt-EJ. Reconstitution with separation-of-function GRB2 mutant caused HDR deficiency and synthetic lethality with PARP inhibitor. Cell and cancer genome analyses suggest biomarkers of low GRB2 for noncanonical HDR deficiency and high MRE11 and GRB2 expression for worse survival in HDR-proficient patients. These findings establish GRB2's role in binding, targeting, and releasing MRE11 to promote efficient HDR over Alt-EJ DSB repair, with implications for genome stability and cancer biology.

The PSMD14 inhibitor Thiolutin as a novel therapeutic approach for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma through facilitating SNAIL degradation

Metastasis and chemoresistance are major causes of poor prognosis in patients with esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC), manipulated by multiple factors including deubiquitinating enzyme (DUB). DUB PSMD14 is reported to be a promising therapeutic target in various cancers. Here, we explored the antitumor activity of Thiolutin (THL), the PSMD14 inhibitor, as a new therapy strategy in ESCC.

Methods: Through 4-NQO-induced murine ESCC model, we investigated the expression of PSMD14 in esophageal tumorigenesis. Ubiquitin-AMC assay was performed to evaluate DUB activity of PSMD14 with THL treatment. The effect of THL on epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), invasion, stemness and chemosensitivity was detected by using in vitro and in vivo experiments. Immunoprecipitation and in vivo ubiquitination assay were conducted to examine whether THL could impair the deubiquitination and stability of SNAIL regulated by PSMD14.

Results: Compared with normal esophageal epithelium, PSMD14 was upregulated in 4-NQO-induced murine esophageal epithelium dysplasia and ESCC tissues. THL could significantly weaken DUB activity of PSMD14. Furthermore, the results of in vitro and in vivo assays showed that THL efficiently suppressed motility and stemness and increased sensitivity to cisplatin in ESCC. Mechanically, THL impaired the interaction between PSMD14 and SNAIL, then promoted the ubiquitination and degradation of SNAIL to inhibit EMT which plays a crucial role in ESCC metastasis, stemness and chemosensitivity. TCGA database analysis revealed that high concomitant PSMD14/SNAIL expression predicted shorter overall survival in esophageal cancer.

Conclusion: Our findings demonstrate for the first time that suppression of PSMD14/SNAIL axis by THL could be a novel and promising therapeutic approach for ESCC clinical therapy.

Inhibition of bone morphogenetic protein receptor 2 suppresses pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma growth by regulating GRB2/PI3K/AKT axis

Background

Bone morphogenetic protein receptor 2 (BMPR2) is an important transmembrane serine/threonine kinase that involves oncogenic processes in multiple cancers. However, the role of BMPR2 and its regulatory mechanism in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) remain unknown.

Methods

We performed a tissue array to explore the expression of BMPR2 in PDAC tissues. The Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) and colony formation assays were used to measure PDAC cells' proliferation. Proteomics and mass spectrometry technology was applied to analyze the BMPR2-regulating proteins. Flow cytometry was used to analyze the cell cycle distribution of PDAC cells. Orthotopic pancreatic cancer (PC) and patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models were used for in vivo experiments.

Results

This study revealed the over-expression of BMPR2 in PDAC tissues and its proliferation-promoting role in PDAC cells. By carrying out protein mass spectrometry technique as well as bioinformatics analysis, we identified that BMPR2 regulated the growth factor receptor-bound protein 2/phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B (GRB2/PI3K/AKT) signaling pathway, and further in vitro experiments showed that inhibition of BMPR2 resulted in suppressing proliferation and G2/M arrest by inhibiting the GRB2/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in PDAC cells. The inhibition of BMPR2 by LDN193189 showed similar results in PDAC cells, orthotopic PC, and PDX models, which revealed that inhibition of BMPR2 significantly suppressed tumor growth by suppressing the GRB2/PI3K/AKT axis.

Conclusions

Inhibition of BMPR2 suppresses PDAC growth by regulating the GRB2/PI3K/AKT axis and is a promising PDAC treatment strategy.

A new bioinformatics approach identifies overexpression of GRB2 as a poor prognostic biomarker for prostate cancer

A subset of prostate cancer displays a poor clinical outcome. Therefore, identifying this poor prognostic subset within clinically aggressive groups (defined as a Gleason score (GS) ≧8) and developing effective treatments are essential if we are to improve prostate cancer survival. Here, we performed a bioinformatics analysis of a TCGA dataset (GS ≧8) to identify pathways upregulated in a prostate cancer cohort with short survival. When conducting bioinformatics analyses, the definition of factors such as “overexpression” and “shorter survival” is vital, as poor definition may lead to mis-estimations. To eliminate this possibility, we defined an expression cutoff value using an algorithm calculated by a Cox regression model, and the hazard ratio for each gene was set so as to identify genes whose expression levels were associated with shorter survival. Next, genes associated with shorter survival were entered into pathway analysis to identify pathways that were altered in a shorter survival cohort. We identified pathways involving upregulation of GRB2. Overexpression of GRB2 was linked to shorter survival in the TCGA dataset, a finding validated by histological examination of biopsy samples taken from the patients for diagnostic purposes. Thus, GRB2 is a novel biomarker that predicts shorter survival of patients with aggressive prostate cancer (GS ≧8).