Purification, characterization and antitumor activity of polysaccharides from Pleurotus eryngii residue

Experimental Models in Unraveling the Biological Mechanisms of Mushroom-Derived Bioactives against Aging- and Lifestyle-Related Diseases: A Review

Mushrooms have garnered considerable interest among researchers due to their immense nutritional and therapeutic properties. The presence of biologically active primary and secondary metabolites, which includes several micronutrients, including vitamins, essential minerals, and other dietary fibers, makes them an excellent functional food. Moreover, the dietary inclusion of mushrooms has been reported to reduce the incidence of aging- and lifestyle-related diseases, such as cancer, obesity, and stroke, as well as to provide overall health benefits by promoting immunomodulation, antioxidant activity, and enhancement of gut microbial flora. The multifunctional activities of several mushroom extracts have been evaluated by both in vitro and in vivo studies using cell lines along with invertebrate and vertebrate model systems to address human diseases and disorders at functional and molecular levels. Although each model has its own strengths as well as lacunas, various studies have generated a plethora of data regarding the regulating players that are modulated in order to provide various protective activities; hence, this review intends to compile and provide an overview of the plausible mechanism of action of mushroom-derived bioactives, which will be helpful in future medicinal explorations.

Preparation of Auricularia auricula polysaccharides and their protective effect on acute oxidative stress injury of Caenorhabditis elegans

This research enhanced the extraction procedure for Auricularia auricula crude polysaccharides by utilizing a modified Fenton reagent as a solvent, and obtained A. auricula polysaccharides (AAPs-VH) via alcohol precipitation and deproteinization. The HPLC profile revealed that the purified AAPs-VH using Sepharose 6FF was mainly a heteropolysaccharide, consisting primarily of mannose, glucuronic acid, glucose, and xylose. The Mw and Mn of the purified AAPs-VH were 87.646 kDa and 48.854 kDa, respectively. The FT-IR and NMR spectra revealed that the purified AAPs-VH belonged to pyranose and were mainly formed by (1 → 3)-linked-β-D glucan formation. In vivo experiments conducted with Caenorhabditis elegans, AAPs-VH was found to notably influence the lifespan, improve the antioxidant system, and decrease the level of cell apoptosis. This might be achieved by up-regulating the expression of genes in the IIS and TOR pathways. The study concludes that the modified Fenton reagent can increase Auricularia auricula polysaccharide solubleness and active sites, which may be an essential prompt for future studies.

Polysaccharides from Brasenia schreberi with Great Antioxidant Ability and the Potential Application in Yogurt

Brasenia schreberi is a widely consumed aquatic plant, yet the knowledge regarding its bioactive components, particularly polysaccharides, remains limited. Therefore, this study aimed to optimize the extraction process of polysaccharides from B. schreberi using the response surface method (RSM). Additionally, we characterized the polysaccharides using various methods and assessed their antioxidant capabilities both in vitro and in vivo, employing cell cultures and Caenorhabditis elegans. Furthermore, these polysaccharides were incorporated into a unique yogurt formulation. Our findings demonstrated that hot water extraction was the most suitable method for extracting polysaccharides from B. schreberi, yielding samples with high sugar content, significant antioxidant capacity, and a well-defined spatial structure. Moreover, pectinase was employed for polysaccharide digestion, achieving an enzymolysis rate of 10.02% under optimized conditions using RSM. Notably, the results indicated that these polysaccharides could protect cells from oxidative stress by reducing apoptosis. Surprisingly, at a concentration of 250 μg/mL, the polysaccharides significantly increased the survival rate of C. elegans from 31.05% to 82.3%. Further qPCR results revealed that the polysaccharides protected C. elegans by up-regulating the daf-16 gene and down-regulating mTOR and insulin pathways, demonstrating remarkable antioxidant abilities. Upon addition to the yogurt, the polysaccharides significantly enhanced the water retention, viscosity, and viability of lactic acid bacteria. These outcomes underscore the potential of polysaccharides from B. schreberi as a valuable addition to novel yogurt formulations, thereby providing additional theoretical support for the utilization of B. schreberi.

Free radical-mediated extraction of polysaccharides from Gelidium amansii and their modulation on abnormal glycometabolism in Caenorhabditis elegans

An improved Fenton-microwave synergistic method was employed to extract polysaccharides from Gelidium amansii (GAPs), which were subsequently purified through alcohol precipitation, deproteinization, and gel chromatography. The effects of GAPs on oxidative stress resistance and abnormal glycometabolism were investigated using Caenorhabditis elegans. The polysaccharide yield reached 54.17 % ± 0.27 % under the following conditions: solid-liquid ratio of 1:102 g/mL, temperature of 80 °C, H2O2 concentration of 1.0 %, microwave power of 700 W, and 33 min. The purified GAPs were heteropolysaccharides primarily composed of mannose, ribose, glucuronic acid, glucose, galactose, xylose, and arabinose, with a molar ratio of 0.287:0.524:0.634:2.646:89.649:5.416:0.463. The weight-average and numerical-average molecular weights of the GAPs were determined to be 142.800 kDa and 75.255 kDa, respectively. Treatment of C. elegans with GAPs at 2.0 mg/mL resulted in a significant extension of the mean lifespan by 53.85 % compared to the negative control (p < 0.05). Furthermore, GAPs exhibited notable enhancements in the antioxidant system, including SOD by 56.90 % and CAT by 96.83 % (p < 0.05). Additionally, GAPs led to reductions in glucose-related metabolites, including glucose levels by 34.54 % and pyruvic acid levels by 149.54 % (p < 0.05). These findings demonstrate the excellent performance of GAPs in enhancing the antioxidant system and regulating abnormal glycometabolism.

Antioxidant Activity of Polysaccharides from the Edible Mushroom Pleurotus eryngii

In this study the antioxidant and neuroprotective activity of an enriched polysaccharide fraction (EPF) obtained from the fruiting body of cultivated P. eryngii was evaluated. Proximate composition (moisture, proteins, fat, carbohydrates and ash) was determined using the AOAC procedures. The EPF was extracted by using, in sequence, hot water and alkaline extractions followed by deproteinization and precipitation with cold ethanol. Total α- and β-glucans were quantified using the Megazyme International Kit. The results showed that this procedure allows a high yield of polysaccharides with a higher content of (1-3; 1-6)-β-D-glucans. The antioxidant activity of EPF was detected from the total reducing power, DPPH, superoxide, hydroxyl and nitric oxide radical scavenging activities. The EPF was found to scavenge DPPH, superoxide, hydroxyl and nitric oxide radicals with a IC50 values of 0.52 ± 0.02, 1.15 ± 0.09, 0.89 ± 0.04 and 2.83 ± 0.16 mg/mL, respectively. As assessed by the MTT assay, the EPF was biocompatible for DI-TNC1 cells in the range of 0.006-1 mg/mL and, at concentrations ranging from 0.05 to 0.2 mg/mL, significantly counteracted H₂O₂-induced reactive oxygen species production. This study demonstrated that polysaccharides extracted from P. eryngii might be used as functional food to potentiate the antioxidant defenses and to reduce oxidative stress.

Evaluating the role of polysaccharide extracted from Pleurotus columbinus on cisplatin-induced oxidative renal injury

This research aimed to examine the antioxidant polysaccharide activity (PsPc-3) derived from Pleurotus columbinus (P. columbinus) on oxidative renal injury (ORI) induced by cisplatin (CP). The principal components of crude polysaccharide were assessed. We studied the preventive impact of polysaccharide on cisplatin-induced renal damage in this study. For 21 days, we employed the CP-induced ORI rat model and divided the rats into four groups: control, CP alone, polysaccharide post CP (100 mg/kg) orally, and CP + polysaccharide (pre and post). The chemical characterization of the polysaccharide fraction PsPc-3 stated that protein was not present. PsPc-3 contained 7.2% uronic acid as assessed as 0% sulfate. PsPc-3 hydrolysate structured of Galacturonic:Glucose:Xylose and their molar proportions were 1:4:5, respectively. The average molecular weight (Mw) and molecular mass (Mn) per molecule of PsPc-3 were 5.49 × 10⁴ g/mol and Mn of 4.95 × 10⁴ g/mol respectively. DPPH radical scavenging activity was demonstrated by the polysaccharide of 65.21-95.51% at 10 mg/ml with IC50 less than 10 mg/ml. CP increased serum urea to 92.0 mg/dl and creatinine up to 1.0 mg/dl, with a concurrent decrease in the levels of total protein to 4.0 mg/dl. Besides, Also, CP-induced ORI raised levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and renal hormones (renin and aldosterone), with a decline in antioxidants compared to control rats. In addition, in the presence of CP, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) levels increased. PsPc-3 decreased these changes dramatically. PsPc-3 improves pathological renal damage caused by CP and decreases tubular apoptosis measured by DNA ladder formation and cleaved caspase- 3. These findings showed that PsPc-3 isolated from P. columbinus protects and inhibits tubular apoptosis in cisplatin-induced ORI. Furthermore, PsPc-3 has no influence on the anticancer efficacy of CP in rats. Thus, PsPc-3 derived from P. columbinus might provide a novel therapy method for cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity.

Preparation of Water-Soluble Acetylaminoglucan with Low Molecular Weight and Its Anti-Tumor Activity on H22 Tumor-Bearing Mice

In this study, a novel low molecular weight of acetylaminoglucan (AGA) was obtained and its antitumor activity on H22 tumor-bearing mice was investigated. The results of UV, HPLC and FT-IR showed that AGA present high purity with low molecular weight of 2.76 × 103 Da. Animal experiments showed that AGA could inhibit the proliferation of tumor cells in H22 tumor-bearing mice by protecting the immune organs, enhancing the phagocytosis ability of macrophages, killing activity of NK cells and proliferation capacity of lymphocytes, improving the levels of cytokines in vivo and regulating the distribution of lymphocyte subsets, and the tumor inhibition rate reached to 52.74% (50 mg/kg). Cell cycle determination further indicated that AGA could induce apoptosis of tumor cells and arrests it in S phase. These results will provide a data basis for the potential application of AGA in pharmaceutical industry.

Isolation, Structural Characterization, and Hypoglycemic Activities In Vitro of Polysaccharides from Pleurotus eryngii

Pleurotus eryngii (PE) is an edible mushroom with high nutritional value. Pleurotus eryngii polysaccharides (PEPs) are one of the main active ingredients and manifest a great variety of biological activities. This study mainly focused on the chemical characterization and biological activities of PEPs, which were separated into two fractions (named WPS and P-1). WPS is mainly dominated by β-glycosidic bonds and contains α-glycosidic bonds, and P-1 only contains α-glycosidic bonds. The molecular weights of WPS and P-1 were 4.5 × 10⁵ Da and 2.2 × 10⁴ Da. The result of GC indicated that two the fractions were composed of rhamnose, arabinose, xylose, mannose, glucose, and galactose, with a ratio of 0.35:0.24:0.45:0.24:28.78:1.10 for WPS and 0.95:0.64:0.66:1.84:60.69:0.67 for P-1. The advanced structure studies indicated that the two fractions had no triple-helical structure, where WPS had a dense structure and P-1 had a loose structure. In addition, the antioxidant activity of WPS surpassed P-1, and the two fractions also exhibited a high hypoglycemic activity via inhibiting α-glycosidase activities and promoting the expression of PI3K-AKT signaling pathway based on in vitro assay and cell experiments.

Influence of glycosyl composition on the immunological activity of pectin and pectin-derived oligosaccharide

Factors causing differences in immune activities between pectin and pectin-derived oligosaccharides have not been fully studied. In this article, four samples with different molecular weights and monosaccharide compositions, including polygalacturonic acid (poly-GA) and its oligosaccharide (oligo-GA), navel orange peel pectin (NP) and its oligosaccharide (oligo-NP), were used to compare their immunomodulatory properties on RAW264.7 cells. All samples had nontoxic effect on cells, oligo-GA and oligo-NP could increase the production of nitric oxide and cytokines to a much higher level than poly-GA and NP. The findings revealed that reducing the molecular weight and preserving the branched regions of pectin-derived samples could improve their immune-enhancing effects on macrophages. Interestingly, the addition of TAK-242 (TLR4 inhibitor) also demonstrated that the tested pectin oligosaccharides could stimulate the activation of macrophages through TLR4 signaling pathway. These results confirmed the potential value of pectin oligosaccharides, and provided theoretical support for their application in the pharmaceutical industry.

Potential Uses of Scallop Shell Powder as a Substrate for the Cultivation of King Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus eryngii)

Scallop shells are currently a major form of waste generated in the Chinese fishing industry. However, they have the potential to be used as important industrial products. This study was conducted to assess the utility of scallop shell powder (SSP) supplementation in improving the growth of king oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus eryngii) grown on sawdust and sugarcane bagasse substrates. The outcomes of interest included mycelial growth, yield, biological efficiency, fruiting body traits, nutrient supply, and the mineral composition of P. eryngii. Supplementation with SSP accelerated the mycelial growth of P. eryngii. The yield of fruiting bodies (399.5 g/bag) and the biological efficiency (84.6%) were 14% higher after supplementation of the substrate with 2% SSP compared with those of mushrooms grown on substrates not supplemented with SSP (349.8 g/bag and 74.0%, respectively). Moreover, the crude protein and fiber contents of the fruiting bodies significantly improved after growth with SSP. Furthermore, supplementation with 2% SSP increased the calcium (Ca) content of the fruiting bodies of P. eryngii by 64% (to 67.2 ± 15.7 mg kg−1) compared with that of mushrooms grown on a control substrate (41.0 mg kg−1). This study revealed that P. eryngii can efficiently use the Ca provided by raw SSP, generating higher Ca contents in their fruiting bodies. Our results demonstrate that the supplementation of substrates with SSP can be useful for enhancing both the yield and nutritional content of P. eryngii.

Antioxidant Activity of Mushroom Extracts/Polysaccharides-Their Antiviral Properties and Plausible AntiCOVID-19 Properties

Mushrooms have been long accomplished for their medicinal properties and bioactivity. The ancients benefitted from it, even before they knew that there was more to mushrooms than just the culinary aspect. This review addresses the benefits of mushrooms and specifically dwells on the positive attributes of mushroom polysaccharides. Compared to mushroom research, mushroom polysaccharide-based reports were observed to be significantly less frequent. This review highlights the antioxidant properties and mechanisms as well as consolidates the various antioxidant applications of mushroom polysaccharides. The biological activities of mushroom polysaccharides are also briefly discussed. The antiviral properties of mushrooms and their polysaccharides have been reviewed and presented. The lacunae in implementation of the antiviral benefits into antiCOVID-19 pursuits has been highlighted. The need for expansion and extrapolation of the knowns of mushrooms to extend into the unknown is emphasized.

Isolation, characterization and HepG-2 inhibition of a novel proteoglycan from Flammulina velutipes

Flammulina velutipes has anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antioxidant and many bioactive properties with high contents of carbohydrate, proteins and fibers. In this study, a novel proteoglycan with polysaccharide complexes and protein chain, named PGD1-1, was isolated from F. velutipes. The structural characteristics of PGD1-1 were then determined, and its anti-proliferation and pro-apoptotic activities against HepG-2 cells were demonstrated in vitro. Results proved that the average molecular weight of PGD1-1 was 32.71 kDa, and the carbohydrate and protein contents were 93.35 and 2.33%, respectively. The protein moiety was bonded to a polysaccharide chain via O-glycosidic linkage. The monosaccharides consisted of d-glucose, D-galactose and D-xylose in a molar ratio of 21.90:2.84:1.00. PGD1-1 significantly inhibited the proliferation of HepG-2 cells by affecting cell lipid peroxidation and nitric oxide production. In addition, PGD1-1 promoted the apoptosis of HepG-2 cells, especially the early apoptosis. These findings proved that PGD1-1 was a novel potent ingredient against the proliferation of HepG-2, which will provide a theoretical basis for the development and utilization of the functional ingredients of the F. velutipes.

Polysaccharides from traditional Asian food source and their antitumor activity

Polysaccharides extracted from Asian traditional food source have been demonstrated to possess different antitumor activities mostly without side effect. In this paper, we reviewed many kinds of polysaccharides from different Asian food source and their antitumor activities. Some are common food such as different mushroom with more research. Some are special e.g., Ginseng, Salvia, Astragalus, Lycium barbarum etc. with relatively fewer research. This review mainly focused on their structure, derivatives, antitumor activities and their mechanism of action in the last decades. It aimed to bridge traditional Asian ingredients with tumor and cancer curation in order to avoid side effect of traditional treatment. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: There are abundant resources of Asian food. And polysaccharides from these resources have been showed good antitumor activities and immunopotentiating activity. This review introduced the advance of the polysaccharides and their antitumor activities, which will promote the development antitumor medicine derived from Asian food source, or their applications as Adjuvant therapy of traditional chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Due to their multiple antitumor activities, enhancing immunity potential, and non-toxic side-effects, it might be utilized for the treatment of multiple tumors and improve the health and the life quality of patients whether as anti-tumor drugs or as adjuvant therapy method. Furthermore, traditional Asian food source is rich. In the near future, more and more efficient polysaccharides with antitumor activities of Asian food source will be discovered. There will be broad application market for the polysaccharides.

JNK pathway and heat shock response mediate the survival of C26 colon carcinoma bearing mice fed with the mushroom Pleurotus eryngii var. eryngii without affecting tumor growth or cachexia

In the last few years, there has been emerging interest in developing treatments against human diseases using natural bioactive content. Here, the powder of the edible mushroom Pleurotus eryngii var. eryngii was mixed with the normal diet of mice bearing C26 colon carcinoma. Interestingly, it was evidenced by a significant increase in the survival rate of C26 tumor-bearing mice accompanied by a significant increase in Hsp90 and Hsp27 protein levels in the tumors. These data were paralleled by a decrease in Hsp60 levels. The mushroom introduced in the diet induced the inhibition of the transcription of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-1 exerting an anti-inflammatory action. The effects of the mushroom were mediated by the activation of c-Jun NH₂-terminal kinases as a result of metabolic stress induced by the micronutrients introduced in the diet. In the tumors of C26 bearing mice fed with Pleurotus eryngii there was also a decreased expression of the mitotic regulator survivin and the anti-apoptotic factor Bcl-xL as well as an increase in the expression levels of Atg7, a protein that drives autophagy. In our hypothesis the interplay of these molecules favored the survival of the mice fed with the mushroom. These data are promising for the introduction of Pleurotus eryngii as a dietary supplement or as an adjuvant in anti-cancer therapy.

Structural characterization and amelioration of sulfated polysaccharides from Ganoderma applanatum residue against CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity

Natural polysaccharides and their derivatives have attracted academic attention due to their extensive physiological activities. However, the hepatoprotective effects against carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) toxicity have not been well elucidated. The objectives of this study were to characterize the structural properties of sulfated Ganoderma applanatum residue polysaccharides (SGRP) and to evaluate their inhibitory effects on liver fibrosis caused by oxidative stress and inflammation. Our in vivo study showed that SGRP was hepatoprotective in CCl₄-induced chronic liver injury mice. It reduced the histopathological damages, down-regulated CYP2E1 (cytochrome P450 2E1) expression, reduced serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels, improved the anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties, inhibited TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway, and reduced the release of inflammatory cytokines. The structural studies indicated that SGRP is a heteropolysaccharide with 7.8% sulfur content and α-linked residue. Our study projects SGRP as a potential candidate in anti-fibrosis treatment by using it as a food supplement or in medicines produced by pharmaceutical industries.

Water-soluble polysaccharides from Pleurotus eryngii fruiting bodies, their activity and affinity for Toll-like receptor 2 and dectin-1

The mushroom cell wall contains polysaccharides that can activate cells of the innate immune system through receptors such as Toll-like receptors (TLR) and dectin-1. In the present study, Pleurotus eryngii polysaccharide fractions containing a 3-O methylated mannogalactan and (1→3)/(1→6)-β-d-glucans were isolated and extensively characterized by 2D NMR and methylation analysis. Traces of a (1→3)-α-d-glucan and a (1→2)-α-d-mannan were also observed. Affinity for TLR2, TLR2-TLR6 and dectin-1 using HEK-cells expressing the relevant receptor genes was tested. PeWN, containing the 3-O methylated mannogalactan, was inactive towards TLR2, whereas fraction PeWB, containing more β-glucan, activated the TLR2-TLR6 heterodimer. Activation of the human β-glucan receptor dectin-1 correlated with the amount of β-glucan in each fraction. Nitric oxide and cytokine supernatant levels of D2SC/1 dendritic cells stimulated with the P. eryngii fractions and interferon-γ were low to moderate. The results indicate that the immunomodulatory activity of water-soluble P. eryngii polysaccharide fractions is modest.

Preparation and characterization of selenium-rich polysaccharide from Phellinus igniarius and its effects on wound healing

The modified of polysaccharides show various bio-activities. In our work, Phellinus igniarius Selenium-enriched mycelias polysaccharides (PSeP) were prepared from Phellinus igniarius, and its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects on injured mice were evaluated. The selenium content and physical properties of polysaccharides were characterized by GC, HPGPC, and FT-IR analysis. The results showed that PSeP could reduce reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity as well as malondialdehyde (MDA) content. Meanwhile, it increased the enzyme activities of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and catalase (CAT). Finally, it showed obvious wound healing effects in vivo. Moreover, PSeP could clear the ROS without obvious cytotoxicity. PSeP could further improve its ability to clear ROS level to promote skin wound healing in mice three days in advance.

Characterization and Hepatoprotections of Ganoderma lucidum Polysaccharides against Multiple Organ Dysfunction Syndrome in Mice

Background

The liver is one of the most commonly affected organs in multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS). In recent years, there have been many studies on Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (GLP), but the role of GLP in MODS is still unclear. The purpose of this work was to explore the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and protective effects of GLP on the liver in MODS model mice.

Methods

The characteristic properties of GLP were processed by physicochemical analysis. The MODS models were successfully established with intraperitoneal injection of zymosan in Kunming strain mice. The antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective effects of GLP were processed both in vitro and in vivo by evaluating the oxidative parameters, inflammatory factors, and liver pathological observations.

Results

The characterization analysis revealed that GLP was a pyranose mainly composed of glucose with the molecular weights (Mw) of 8309 Da. The experimental results proved that GLP had potential hepatoprotection possibly by improving the antioxidant status (scavenging excessive oxygen radicals, increasing the antioxidant enzyme activities, and reducing the lipid peroxide), alleviating the inflammatory response (reducing the inflammatory factor levels), and guaranteeing the liver functions.

Conclusions

This research suggested that GLP had the potential to be developed as a natural medicine for the treatment of multiple organ failure.

Degradation models, structure, rheological properties and protective effects on erythrocyte hemolysis of the polysaccharides from Ribes nigrum L

The polysaccharides from blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum L.) fruits were degraded by ultrasonic irradiation. Results showed that viscosity-average molecular weight decreased with increasing ultrasonic time or power. The degradation was fitted to the second-order kinetics model and midpoint chain scission model. Gas chromatographic analysis demonstrated that the native polysaccharide and three degraded polysaccharides were composed of the same monosaccharides but in different ratios. Fourier transform infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic analyses revealed the presence of α-, β-pyranose rings and the same six sugar residues in the four blackcurrant polysaccharides. Compared to the native polysaccharide, three degraded polysaccharides displayed better rheological properties and stronger protective effects against erythrocyte hemolysis. Collectively, the results support the potential utility of blackcurrant polysaccharides as natural antioxidants.

Evaluation of the Cultivated Mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus Basidiocarps Using Vibration Spectroscopy and Chemometrics

Fruiting bodies (basidiocarps) of the cultivated mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus (16 strains) were characterized by vibration spectroscopy and chemometrics. According to organic elemental analysis and Megazyme assay, the basidiocarps contained ~6.2–17.5% protein and ~18.8–58.2% total glucans. The neutral sugar analysis confirmed that glucose predominated in all the samples (~71.3–94.4 mol%). Fourier-transformed (FT) mid- and near-infrared (FT MIR, FT NIR) and FT Raman spectra of the basidiocarps were recorded, and the characteristic bands of proteins, glucans and chitin were assigned. The samples were discriminated based on principal component analysis (PCA) of the spectroscopic data in terms of biopolymeric composition. The partial least squares regression (PLSR) models based on first derivatives of the vibration spectra were obtained for the prediction of the macromolecular components, and the regression coefficients R2 and root mean square errors (RMSE) were calculated for the calibration (cal) of proteins (R2cal 0.981–0.994, RMSEcal ~0.3–0.5) and total glucans (R2cal 0.908–0.996, RMSEcal ~0.6–3.0). According to cross-validation (CV) diagnosis, the protein models were more precise and accurate (R2cv 0.901–0.970, RMSEcv ~0.6–1.1) than the corresponding total glucan models (R2cv 0.370–0.804, RMSEcv ~4.7–8.5) because of the wide structural diversity of these polysaccharides. Otherwise, the Raman band of phenylalanine ring breathing vibration at 1004 cm−1 was used for direct quantification of proteins in P. ostreatus basidiocarps (R ~0.953). This study showed that the combination of vibration spectroscopy with chemometrics is a powerful tool for the evaluation of culinary and medicinal mushrooms, and this approach can be proposed as an alternative to common analytical methods.

Antioxidation, anti-hyperlipidaemia and hepatoprotection of polysaccharides from Auricularia auricular residue

As hyperlipidemia was a pathological progress by lipid dysfunctions, the present object was to investigate the hypolipidemic and hepatoprotective effects of Auricularia auricular residue polysaccharides (RPS) against HFE (high-fat emulsion) toxicities in mice. The structure analysis showed that the RPS was pyranose-polysaccharides mainly composed of glucose with the weight-average molecular weight of 2.00 × 10⁵ Da. The in vivo experiments demonstrated that the RPS had potential hepatoprotections by enhancing the antioxidant and anti-hyperlipidaemia status, and could inhibit the increasing body weights. Besides, the RPS could improve the glucose utilization with the oral glucose tolerance test (120 min) of 5.04 ± 0.12 mmol/L at the dose of 400 mg/kg bw. The results in present study demonstrated that RPS could be used as a functional foods and natural medicines against the HFE-induced hyperlipidemia and its complications.

Preparation of newly identified polysaccharide from Pleurotus eryngii and its anti-inflammation activities potential

The anti-inflammatory effects of two newly identified Pleurotus eryngii polysaccharides (WPEP, NPEP) were determined in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages in this study. Characterization analysis revealed that molecular weights of WPEP and NPEP were 167 and 274 kDa, and were mainly composed of glucose with β-type glycosidic linkages. WPEP and NPEP could significantly inhibit LPS-induced inflammatory responses by regulating the production of NO, Protaglandin E2 (PGE₂ ), Interleukin-1β (IL-1β), Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and Interleukin-6 (IL-6). This was through the blocking of the activation of Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway by inhibiting phosphorylation of p38, extracellular regulation of protein kinases 1/2, and stress-activated protein kinase/jun aminoterminal kinase. Moreover, WPEP and NPEP inhibited NF-κB signaling by reducing nuclear translocation and phosphorylation of p65. Overall, our results, for the first time identified two P. eryngii polysaccharides and demonstrated the related anti-inflammatory effects, which indicated the favorable potential of P. eryngii polysaccharide as specific functional foods. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study prepared and characterized newly identified Pleurotus eryngii water-soluble polysaccharide fractions and elucidated the nutritional benefits, mainly the immune response related to anti-inflammatory activities by utilizing lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Collectively, results of this study suggested that the P. eryngii polysaccharide fractions could be considered as potential candidates for exploration in the development of new immunomodulatory agent or functional supplementary foods.

M. B. Morais A, Freitas AC, C. F. R. Ferreira I, Pintado M. Valorization of Mushroom By-Products as a Source of Value-Added Compounds and Potential Applications

Nowadays, the food sector is highly concerned with environmental issues and foreseen to develop strategies to reduce waste and losses resulting from activities developed in the food system. An approach is to increment added value to the agro-industrial wastes, which might provide economic growth and environmental protection, contributing to a circular economy. Mushroom by-products represent a disposal problem, but they are also promising sources of important compounds, which may be used due to their functional and nutritional properties. Research has been developed in different fields to obtain value added solutions for the by-products generated during mushroom production and processing. Bioactive compounds have been obtained and applied in the development of nutraceutical and pharmaceutical formulations. Additionally, other applications have been explored and include animal feed, fertilizer, bioremediation, energy production, bio-based materials, cosmetics and cosmeceuticals. The main purpose of this review is to highlight the relevant composition of mushroom by-products and discuss their potential as a source of functional compounds and other applications. Future research needs to explore pilot and industrial scale extraction methods to understand the technological feasibility and the economic sustainability of the bioactive compounds extraction and valorization towards different applications.

Physicochemical properties and bioactivities of Lentinula edodes polysaccharides at different development stages

Lentinula edodes polysaccharides from at four different development stages (referred to L1, L2, L3 and L4, respectively) were extracted by hot water method, and graded ethanol precipitation to final concentration of 20%, 50% and 70%, then12 crude polysaccharide fractions (referred to L1P20, L2P20, L3P20; L4P20, L1P50, L2P50, L3P50, L4P50 and L1P70, L2P70, L3P70, L4P70, respectively) were obtained. Physicochemical properties and exoteric bioactivities of the crude polysaccharide fractions were measured. The results of physicochemical properties revealed that extraction yields of P20 fractions were significantly higher than those of P50 and P70 fractions, and the contents of polysaccharide and β-glucan in L3P50 fractions were higher, and the viscosity-average molecular weight reached a maximum at L2, and high molecular weight polysaccharides could be obtained at a low alcohol concentration in P20 fractions, and the glycosidic bonds were found to exist in all crude polysaccharide fractions. These crude polysaccharide fractions showed different bioactivities, wherein the polysaccharides of higher molecular weight in P20 fractions had greater bioactivity. These results showed that immature stage of Lentinula edodes was the optimal harvest time for obtaining higher bioactivity of crude polysaccharides.

Extracción de sustancias bioactivas de <i>Pleurotus ostreatus</i> (Pleurotaceae) por maceración dinámica

La extracción de compuestos bioactivos de Pleurotus ostreatus por maceración dinámica, es un proceso sencillo y económico, que normalmente presenta baja eficiencia. El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar el proceso de extracción para determinar qué tratamiento permite la mayor eficiencia, analizando la influencia de los factores de estudio: concentración de etanol (50 %, 80 %, 95 %) y relación sólido/solvente (1:10, 1:20, 1:30). Se maceraron 5 g de polvo fúngico en etanol acuoso durante 90 minutos, a 150 rpm, 25 °C y tamaño de partícula de 0,5 a 1,0 mm. Se trataron los datos mediante estadística paramétrica con un nivel de confianza del 95 %. Los resultados revelaron que la mayor eficiencia de extracción total (40,9 %) en base seca se obtuvo con etanol al 50 % y una relación sólido/solvente de 1:30. Por componentes se encontró que, el etanol al 50 % con una relación de 1:20 permitió la máxima eficiencia para carbohidratos totales (17,9 %) y polisacáridos (17,2 %), mientras que con una relación de 1:30 se obtuvo la máxima eficiencia para azúcares reductores (0,91 %) y polifenoles (0,23 %). Por otro lado, el etanol al 95 % y la relación 1:30 permitió la máxima eficiencia para proteínas (29,4 %). La extracción de beta-glucanos no fue significativa. La eficiencia de la extracción está muy influenciada por los parámetros de operación, principalmente por la concentración de etanol; en particular, la de 50 % resultó más favorable para la obtención de la mayoría de sustancias bioactivas con potencial nutracéutico.

Multiple fingerprint and fingerprint-activity relationship for quality assessment of polysaccharides from Flammulina velutipes

Polysaccharides are known as one of the most important bioactive compounds in Flammulina velutipes. However, there is no accurate and comprehensive assessment method to evaluate and authenticate F. velutipes polysaccharides (FVPs) from different sources. In this study, a multiple fingerprint analysis method including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was established. The inhibitory activities of FVPs against HepG2 were measured and introduced into multiple linear regression (MLR) analysis to investigate fingerprint-activity relationship. The principal component analysis (PCA) scores showed that the polysaccharides extracted from 20 batches of different F. velutipes were highly similar, and substandard samples could be distinguished from the authentic polysaccharides clearly. The glucuronic acid could be considered as a marker for discrimination of white and yellow F. velutipes polysaccharides in HPLC fingerprints. Moreover, the HPLC fingerprint-growth inhibitory activity relationship illuminated that monosaccharides composition played an important role on the HepG2 growth inhibitory activity, and activity-associated markers (mannose, rhamnose, xylose, and galactose) were chosen to assess FVPs from different sources. The suggested HPLC fingerprint-activity relationship method provides an integrated strategy for the quality control of F. velutipes and its related products.

Polysaccharides of mushroom Pleurotus spp.: New extraction techniques, biological activities and development of new technologies

The biodiversity of mushrooms Pleurotus spp. is impressive due to its complexity and diversity related to the composition of chemical structures such as polysaccharides, glycoproteins and secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, flavonoids and betalains. Recent studies of polysaccharides and their structural elucidation have helped to direct research and development of technologies related to pharmacological action, production of bioactive foods and application of new, more sophisticated extraction tools. The diversity of bioactivities related to these biopolymers, their mechanisms and routes of action are constant focus of researches. The elucidation of bioactivities has helped to formulate new vaccines and targeted drugs. In this context, in terms of polysaccharides and the diversity of mushrooms Pleurotus spp., this review seeks to revisit the genus, making an updated approach on the recent discoveries of polysaccharides, new extraction techniques and bioactivities, emphasising on their mechanisms and routes in order to update the reader on the recent technologies related to these polymers.

Two Novel Polysaccharides in Psoralea corylifolia L and anti-A549 Lung Cancer Cells Activity In Vitro

Two novel water soluble heteroglycan (PCp-I and PCp-II) with anti-A549 lung cancer cells activity were isolated from Psoralea corylifolia L. Their average molecular weights were 2.721 × 104 and 2.850 × 104. PCp-I and PCp-II had the same monosaccharide composition, but their molar ratios were different. Based on methylation and NMR spectroscopy, the part structure of PCp-I was identified. The results of scanning electron microscope (SEM) showed that PCp-I had an irregular porous structure and PCp-II was flaky and irregularly curved. The results of thermogravimetry-differential scanning calorimetry (TG-DSC) showed that PCp-I and PCp-II had good thermal stability. Furthermore, PCp-I and PCp-II exhibited significant anti-A549 lung cancer cells activity (IC50 = 64.84 and 126.30 μM) in vitro.

The Preparation and Structure Analysis Methods of Natural Polysaccharides of Plants and Fungi: A Review of Recent Development

Polysaccharides are ubiquitous biomolecules found in nature that contain various biological and pharmacological activities that are employed in functional foods and therapeutic agents. Natural polysaccharides are obtained mainly by extraction and purification, which may serve as reliable procedures to enhance the quality and the yield of polysaccharide products. Moreover, structural analysis of polysaccharides proves to be promising and crucial for elucidating structure–activity relationships. Therefore, this report summarizes the recent developments and applications in extraction, separation, purification, and structural analysis of polysaccharides of plants and fungi.

The ameliorations of Ganoderma applanatum residue polysaccharides against CCl4 induced liver injury

This work investigated the protective effects of Ganoderma applanatum residue polysaccharides (GRP) on the CCl₄-induced hepatotoxicity. The results indicated that GRP showed significantly effects on preventing the increase of AST, ALT and ALP levels in serum, elevating the activities of SOD, GSH-Px and CAT, decreasing the contents of MDA and LPO, and reducing the CYP2E1 and TGF-β concentrations in CCl₄-induced mice, respectively. Meanwhile, the levels of TNF-α and IL-6 were significantly decreased, while the value of IL-10 was increased by GRP treatment. Besides, the western blot assay showed the IκBα expressions were significantly increased and the p-p65 was decreased by the treatment with GRP. The characterizations indicated that the GRP was heteropolysaccharide with lower molecular weights and α-furanoside residues. These results demonstrated that GRP might be a potential material for drug and functional food development against chemical hepatic injury.

Repair Effects of Astragalus Polysaccharides with Different Molecular Weights on Oxidatively Damaged HK-2 Cells

This study investigated the repair effects of three Astragalus polysaccharides (APSs) with different molecular weights (Mws) on injured human renal proximal tubular epithelial (HK-2) cells to reveal the effect of Mw of polysaccharide on cell repair. A damage model was established by injuring HK-2 cells with 2.6 mM oxalate, and APS0, APS1, and APS2 with Mw of 11.03, 4.72, and 2.61 KDa were used to repair the damaged cells. After repair by APSs, the morphology of damaged HK-2 cells gradually returned to normal, the destruction of intercellular junctions recovered, intracellular reactive oxygen species production amount decreased, and their mitochondrial membrane potential increased. In addition, the cell cycle progression gradually normalized, lysosome integrity increased, and cell apoptotic rates obviously declined in the repaired cells. All three APSs could promote the expression of Keap1, Nrf2, SOD1, and CAT. In addition, the expression levels of inflammation markers containing MCP-1 and IL-6 decreased after APS repair. We deduced that APSs exert their repair function by activating the Nrf2-Keap1 signaling pathway and inhibiting inflammation. Among the APSs, APS1 with a moderate Mw provided the strongest repair effect. APSs may have a preventive effect on kidney stones.

Structural characterization and immunostimulatory activity of a novel polysaccharide isolated with subcritical water from Sagittaria sagittifolia L

In the present study, we obtained polysaccharides from Sagittaria sagittifolia L. (SSP) with subcritical water extraction (SWE). Two water-soluble polysaccharides (SSP-W1 and SSP-S1) from the acquired SSP were isolated with DEAE-52 and Sephadex G-100. Besides, the structural characteristics and immunostimulatory activity were also investigated. The results showed that both SSP-W1 and SSP-S1 were homogeneous polysaccharides and the molecular weight was 62.03 KDa and 15.2 KDa, respectively. In addition, both SSP-W1 and SSP-S1 are heteropolysaccharides. Moreover, FT-IR analysis showed that SSP-W1 was α-pyranose polysaccharide, while SSP-S1 was a typical β-pyranose polysaccharide. Congo red staining showed that there was no triple helix structure in both SSP-W1 and SSP-S1. Furthermore, both SSP-W1 and SSP-S1 could promote the proliferation, production of NO, and secretion of TNF-α and IL-10 of macrophages RAW 264.7, significantly. Therefore, the polysaccharides extracted from Sagittaria sagittifolia L. with SWE have the potential to be used as immunoreactive agent in medicine and functional foods.

Effects of Ultrasound Treatment on Extraction and Rheological Properties of Polysaccharides from Auricularia Cornea var. Li

Auricularia cornea var. Li. is an edible fungi and polysaccharides in Auricularia cornea var. Li. may have bioactive activities. Polysaccharides from Auricularia cornea var. Li. (ACP) was extracted using ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) method and compared with hot water extraction (HWE) for extraction yield, extraction rate, purity of polysaccharides, microstructure of residues after extraction, preliminary structure and rheological properties of polysaccharides. Optimum conditions for UAE (particle size of 150⁻200 mesh, water to raw material ratio of 70:1, extraction temperature at 70 °C for 40 min, ultrasonic amplitude of 40%) and HWE (particle size of 150⁻200 mesh, water to raw material ratio of 60:1, extraction temperature at 90 °C for 3.0 h) were obtained via single-factor experiment. Under optimum conditions, extraction yield of polysaccharides by UAE was 30.99 ± 1.93% which showed no significant difference with that by HWE (30.35 ± 1.67%) (P > 0.05). Extraction rate (29.29 ± 1.41%) and purity (88.62 ± 2.80%) of polysaccharides by UAE were higher than those by HWE (extraction rate of 24.95 ± 2.78% and purity of 75.33 ± 6.15%) (P < 0.05). Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images of residues by UAE showed more broken cells than those by HWE. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra showed that the dialyzed ACP extracted by HWE and UAE (DACP-HWE and DACP-UAE) had similar characteristic absorption peaks of polysaccharides. Both DACP-HWE and DACP-UAE solutions showed typical shear thinning and temperature-independent behaviors (25⁻90 °C) and UAE resulted in polysaccharides with remarkably lower viscosity in comparison with HWE. DACP-UAE solutions exhibited more liquid-like state while DACP-HWE solutions solid-like system. Data indicated that ultrasound treatment may be a useful means for extraction of polysaccharides from Auricularia cornea var. Li.

Structural elucidation of fucoidan from Cladosiphon okamuranus (Okinawa mozuku)

Fucoidan is a sulphated polysaccharide, made up mainly of l-fucose, which is found in brown seaweeds. Its chemical structure is diverse and depends on maturity, species and geographical location. The objective of this study was to elucidate the chemical structure of fucoidan from Cladosiphon okamuranus harvested in Japan. The fucoidan was subject to purification prior to monosaccharide profiling, sulphate content determination, and linkage analysis. Our results showed that Japanese Cladosiphon okamuranus fucoidan contained 70.13 ± 0.22 wt% fucose and 15.16 ± 1.17 wt% sulphate. Other minor monosaccharides found were d-xylose, d-galactose, d-mannose, d-glucose, d-arabinose, d-rhamnose and d-glucuronic acid. Linkage analysis revealed that fucopyranoside units along the backbone are linked, through α-1,3-glycosidic bonds, with fucose branching at C-2, and one sulphate group at C-4 per every three fucose units, i.e. the structure of fucoidan from Japanese Cladosiphon okamuranus is [→3)-α-fuc(1→]0.52[→3)-α-fuc-4-OSO3-(1→]0.33[→2)-α-fuc]0.14.