Modified sugar beet pectin induces apoptosis of colon cancer cells via an interaction with the neutral sugar side-chains

Metal-ion-binding properties of glycyrrhiza polysaccharide extracted from Licorice: Structural characterization and potential application in drug delivery

Licorice is not only a widely used food, but also a classic tonic Chinese medicine, which mainly contains glycyrrhiza polysaccharides (GP) and flavonoids with excellent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant pharmacological activities. In this study, a neutral homogeneous polysaccharide (GP1-2) was isolated from Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. However, its gelation behavior and properties have yet to be comprehensively studied. In this study, a Ca2+ cross-linked physical hydrogel based on neutral GP1-2 (GP1-2-Ca2+) is fabricated. The ability of metal ions to cross-linked gelation with GP1-2 is explored with respect to the polysaccharide concentrations, ion species, and pH environments. The pH range of Ca2+ cross-linked with GP1-2 to form hydrogel is 8 to 10, and the gelation concentration ranges from 20.0 % to 50.0 % w/v. Subsequently, the properties of the GP1-2-Ca2+ hydrogels are investigated using rheological measurements, scanning electron microscopy, free radical scavenging, MTT assays, healing capability, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. The results reveal that the structure of GP1-2 presents an irregular porous structure, however, the physical gel formed after cross-linking with Ca2+ microscopically showed a globular porous structure with uniform distribution, suggesting that this structure characteristic may be used as a carrier material for drug delivery. Meanwhile, the GP1-2-Ca2+ hydrogel also possessed extraordinary viscoelasticity, cytocompatibility, antioxidant properties, anti-inflammatory activity, and ability to promote wound healing. Furthermore, the potential of GP1-2-Ca2+ hydrogels as drug delivery materials was validated by using rhein as a model drug for encapsulation, it is demonstrated that its cumulative release behavior of GP1-2-Ca2+ is pH-dependent. All in all, this study reveals the potential application of natural polysaccharides in drug delivery, highlighting its dual roles as carrier materials and bioactive ingredients.

An in-depth review: Unraveling the extraction, structure, bio-functionalities, target molecules, and applications of pectic polysaccharides

Pectic polysaccharides have long been a challenging subject of research in the field of macromolecular science, given their complex structures and wide range of biological effects. However, the extensive exploration of pectic polysaccharides has been limited due to the intricacy of their structures. In this comprehensive review, we aim to provide a thorough summary of the existing knowledge on pectic polysaccharides, with a particular focus on aspects such as classification, extraction methodologies, structural analysis, elucidation of biological activities, and exploration of target molecules and signaling pathways. By conducting a comprehensive analysis of existing literature and research achievements, we strive to establish a comprehensive and systematic framework that can serve as a reference and guide for further investigations into pectic polysaccharides. Furthermore, this review delves into the applications of pectic polysaccharides beyond their fundamental attributes and characteristics, exploring their potential in fields such as materials, food, and pharmaceuticals. We pay special attention to the promising opportunities for pectic polysaccharides in the pharmaceutical domain and provide an overview of related drug development research. The aim of this review is to facilitate a holistic understanding of pectic polysaccharides by incorporating multifaceted research, providing valuable insights for further in-depth investigations into this significant polymer.

Research progress and application of pectin: A review

Pectin, an acidic polysaccharide, is naturally present primarily in the cell walls and inner layers of higher plants. Pectin is extensively used in food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and other industries owing to its exceptional attributes encompassing superior gelation, emulsification, antioxidant activity, stability, biocompatibility, and nontoxicity. Due to the increasing demand for pectin, there is a short supply in the domestic pectin market. Currently, the domestic production of pectin is heavily reliant on imports, thus emphasizing the urgent need to enhance its local manufacturing capabilities. Due to the diverse sources of pectin and variations in extraction and purification methods, its content, physicochemical properties, and biological activity are influenced, consequently impacting the market application of pectin. Therefore, this paper comprehensively reviews the extraction and purification process of pectin, in vivo metabolism, and biological activities (including antitumor, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects, antimicrobial properties, accelerated wound healing potential, promotion of gastrointestinal peristalsis, and alleviation of constipation as well as cholesterol-lowering effect). Furthermore, it explores the diverse applications of pectin in food science, biomedicine, and other interdisciplinary fields. This review serves as a valuable resource for enhancing the efficiency of pectin content improvement and exploring the potential value and application of pectin in a more scholarly and scientifically rigorous manner.

Differential effects of enzymatically modified Ougan (Citrus Suavissima Hort. ex Tanaka) peel pectins extracted with different methods on inhibiting the proliferation of Hela cells

Previous studies have shown that modified citrus pectin (MCP) is an anti-tumor material of food grade. In this study, two enzymatically modified Ougan (Citrus Suavissima Hort. ex Tanaka) peel pectins (EMP1 and EMP2, the ones extracted by alkali and enzymatic methods) were used to investigate their differential effects on viability and physiology of Hela cells. The results showed that EMP1 and EMP2 had 88.00 % and 81.01 % galacturonic acid, 21.31 % and 20.25 % esterification degree, 10,417 g/mol and 6416 g/mol molecular weight (Mw), 82.86 % and 50.62 % RG-I, and 8.91 % and 15.70 % HG, respectively. EMP2 had higher intensities of absorption peaks than EMP1. They were irregularly shaped, with more holes on EMP1 but more wrinkles on EMP2. Both could inhibit the growth, proliferation, migration, and invasion of HeLa cells in a concentration-dependent manner, with better efficiency in EMP2. Meanwhile, EMP2 was more efficient than EMP1 in blocking the cell cycle in S phase, resulting in apoptosis. In conclusion, the variations caused by extraction resulted in differences in anti-tumor activity of MCP and EMP2 with lower Mw and higher HG exhibited better anti-tumor effects. This study would provide an experimental basis and reference for the research and development of anti-tumor supplements from citrus pectin.

Unlocking the Potential of Food Waste: A Review of Multifunctional Pectins

This review comprehensively explores the multifunctional applications of pectins derived from food waste and by-products, emphasizing their role as versatile biomaterials in the medical-related sectors. Pectins, known for their polyelectrolytic nature and ability to form hydrogels, influence the chemical composition, sensory properties, and overall acceptability of food and pharmaceutical products. The study presents an in-depth analysis of molecular parameters and structural features of pectins, such as the degree of esterification (DE), monosaccharide composition, galacturonic acid (GalA) content, and relative amounts of homogalacturonan (HG) and rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I), which are critical for their technofunctional properties and biological activity. Emphasis is placed on pectins obtained from various waste sources, including fruits, vegetables, herbs, and nuts. The review also highlights the importance of structure-function relationships, especially with respect to the interfacial properties and rheological behavior of pectin solutions and gels. Biological applications, including antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anticancer, and antimicrobial activities, are also discussed, positioning pectins as promising biomaterials for various functional and therapeutic applications. Recalled pectins can also support the growth of probiotic bacteria, thus increasing the health benefits of the final product. This detailed review highlights the potential of using pectins from food waste to develop advanced and sustainable biopolymer-based products.

Biopolymer-Based Nanomedicine for Cancer Therapy: Opportunities and Challenges

Cancer, as the foremost challenge among human diseases, has plagued medical professionals for many years. While there have been numerous treatment approaches in clinical practice, they often cause additional harm to patients. The emergence of nanotechnology has brought new directions for cancer treatment, which can deliver anticancer drugs specifically to tumor areas. This article first introduces the application scenarios of nanotherapies and treatment strategies of nanomedicine. Then, the noteworthy characteristics exhibited by biopolymer materials were described, which make biopolymers stand out in polymeric nanomedicine delivery. Next, we focus on summarizing the state-of-art studies of five categories of proteins (Albumin, Gelatin, Silk fibroin, Zein, Ferritin), nine varieties of polysaccharides (Chitosan, Starch, Hyaluronic acid, Dextran, cellulose, Fucoidan, Carrageenan, Lignin, Pectin) and liposomes in the field of anticancer drug delivery. Finally, we also provide a summary of the advantages and limitations of these biopolymers, discuss the prevailing impediments to their application, and discuss in detail the prospective research directions. This review not only helps readers understand the current development status of nano anticancer drug delivery systems based on biopolymers, but also is helpful for readers to understand the properties of various biopolymers and find suitable solutions in this field through comparative reading.

Assessing high-temperature and pressure extraction of bioactive water-soluble polysaccharides from passion fruit mesocarp

The mesocarp (albedo) of passion fruit is considered a waste product but rich in soluble fibers, especially pectins. Biological activity and health benefits of pectins have recently emerged, especially in colorectal cancer and attenuating inflammation. Pectin conventional extraction often uses mineral acids, which can be hazardous to the environment, and alternatives can be costly. Here, we assessed a high-temperature and pressure method to extract pectin from the passion fruit albedo and evaluated the differences from the water-soluble fractions extracted. HPSEC, HPAEC, FTIR-ATR, and HSQC-NMR were performed to identify and confirm the highly methylated homogalacturonan structures. The heat-modified samples showed a decreased molecular size compared to the untreated sample. Colorectal cancer cell lines showed reduced viability after being treated with different doses of modified samples, with two of them, LW-MP3 and 4, showing the most potent effects. All samples were detected inside cells by immunofluorescence assay. It was observed that LW-MP3 and 4 upregulated the p53 protein, indicating cell-cycle arrest and the cleaved caspase-9 in one of the cell lines, with LW-MP4 enhancing cell death by apoptosis. Since the modified samples were composed of hydrolyzed homogalacturonans, those probably were the responsible structures for these anti-cancer effects.

Physicochemical and antioxidant properties of pectin fractions extracted from lemon (Citrus Eureka) peels

Pectin, a natural polysaccharide, holds versatile applications in food and pharmaceuticals. However, there is a need for further exploration into extracting novel functional fractions and characterizing them thoroughly. In this study, a sequential extraction approach was used to obtain three distinct lemon pectin (LP) fractions from lemon peels (Citrus Eureka): LP extracted with sodium acetate (LP-SA), LP extracted with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (LP-EDTA), and LP extracted with sodium carbonate and sodium borohydride (LP-SS). Comprehensive analysis revealed low methyl-esterification in all fractions. LP-SA and LP-SS displayed characteristics of rhamnogalacturonan-I type pectin, while LP-EDTA mainly consisted of homogalacturonan pectin. Notably, LP-SA formed self-aggregated particles with rough surfaces, LP-EDTA showed interlocking linear structures with smooth planes, and LP-SS exhibited branch chain structures with smooth surfaces. Bioactivity analysis indicated that LP-SA had significant apparent viscosity and ABTS radical scavenging activity, while both LP-EDTA and LP-SS showed excellent thermal stability according to thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Furthermore, LP-SS exhibited remarkable gel-forming ability and significant hydroxyl free radicals scavenging activity. In conclusion, this study presents a novel method for extracting various lemon pectin fractions with unique structural and bioactive properties, contributing insights for advanced applications in the food and pharmaceutical sectors.

Ripe papaya pectins inhibit the proliferation of colon cancer spheroids and the formation of chemically induced aberrant crypts in rats colons

Pectins are a class of soluble polysaccharides that can have anticancer properties through several mechanisms. This study aimed to characterize the molecular structure of water-soluble fractions (WSF) derived from ripe and unripe papayas and assess their biological effects in two models: the 3D colon cancer spheroids to measure cell viability and cytotoxicity, and the in vivo model to investigate the inhibition of preneoplastic lesions in rats. WSF yield was slightly higher in ripe papaya, and both samples mainly consisted of pectin. Both pectins inhibited the growth of colon cancer HT29 and HCT116 spheroids. Unripe pectin disturbed HT29/NIH3T3 spheroid formation, decreased HCT116 spheroid viability, and increased spheroid cytotoxicity. Ripe pectin had a more substantial effect on the reduction of spheroid viability for HT29 spheroids. Furthermore, in vivo experiments on a rat model revealed a decrease in aberrant crypt foci (ACF) formation for both pectins and increased apoptosis in colonocytes for ripe papaya pectins. The results suggest potential anticancer properties of papaya pectin, with ripe pectin showing a higher potency.

Insights into the impact of modification methods on the structural characteristics and health functions of pectin: A comprehensive review

Pectin is a complex polysaccharide that is widely present in plant cells and has multiple physiological functions. However, most pectin exists in the form of protopectin, which has a large molecular weight and cannot be fully absorbed and utilized in the human gut to exert its effects. The significant differences in the structure of different sources of pectin also limited their application in the food and medical fields. In order to achieve greater development and utilization of pectin functions, this paper reviewed several commonly used methods for pectin modification from physical, chemical, and biological perspectives, and elaborated on the relationship between these modification methods and the structure and functional properties of pectin. At the same time, the functional characteristics of modified pectin and its application in medical health, such as regulating intestinal health, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and drug transport, were reviewed, so as to provide a theoretical basis for targeted modification of pectin and the development of new modified pectin products.

Recent progress and treatment strategy of pectin polysaccharide based tissue engineering scaffolds in cancer therapy, wound healing and cartilage regeneration

Natural polymers and its mixtures in the form of films, sponges and hydrogels are playing a major role in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Hydrogels have been extensively investigated as standalone materials for drug delivery purposes as they enable effective encapsulation and sustained release of drugs. Biopolymers are widely utilised in the fabrication of hydrogels due to their safety, biocompatibility, low toxicity, and regulated breakdown by human enzymes. Among all the biopolymers, polysaccharide-based polymer is well suited to overcome the limitations of traditional wound dressing materials. Pectin is a polysaccharide which can be extracted from different plant sources and is used in various pharmaceutical and biomedical applications including cartilage regeneration. Pectin itself cannot be employed as scaffolds for tissue engineering since it decomposes quickly. This article discusses recent research and developments on pectin polysaccharide, including its types, origins, applications, and potential demands for use in AI-mediated scaffolds. It also covers the materials-design process, strategy for implementation to material selection and fabrication methods for evaluation. Finally, we discuss unmet requirements and current obstacles in the development of optimal materials for wound healing and bone-tissue regeneration, as well as emerging strategies in the field.

Modification methods, biological activities and applications of pectin: A review

Pectin is a complex and functionally rich natural plant polysaccharide that is widely used in food, medical, and cosmetic industries. It can be modified to improve its properties and expand its applications. Modification methods for natural pectin can be divided into physical, chemical, enzymatic, and compound methods. Different modification methods can result in modified pectins (MPs) exhibiting different physicochemical properties and biological activities. The objectives of this paper were to review the various pectin modification methods explored over the last decade, compare their differences, summarize the impact of different modification methods on the biological activity and physicochemical properties of pectin, and describe the applications of MPs in food and pharmaceutical fields. Finally, suggestions and perspectives for the development of MPs are discussed. This review offers a theoretical reference for the rational and efficient processing of pectin and the expansion of its applications.

Recent Advances in the Extraction of Pectin from Various Sources and Industrial Applications

Pectin is a structural polysaccharide present in plants that primarily consists of galacturonic acid units. This Review discusses the chemistry of pectin, including its composition and molecular weight. Pectin is conventionally extracted from agricultural waste (fruit and vegetable peels) using an acidic or basic aqueous medium at high temperatures. These processes are time- and energy-consuming and also result in severe environmental problems due to the production of acidic effluents and equipment corrosion. As pectin usage is increasing in food industries for developing different products and it is also used as an excipient in pharmaceutical products, better extraction procedures are required to maximize the yield and purity. The Review encompasses various alternate green approaches for the extraction of pectin, including traditional acid extraction and various emerging technologies such as deep eutectic solvent-based extraction, enzyme-assisted extraction, subcritical fluid extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, and microwave-based extraction, and evaluates the yield and physicochemical characteristics of the extracted pectin. This work aims to provide a platform for attracting more thorough research focused on the engineering of novel and more efficient green methods for the extraction of pectin and its utilization for various biotechnological purposes.

Biological Properties and Biomedical Applications of Pectin and Pectin-Based Composites: A Review

Pectin has recently drawn much attention in biomedical applications due to its distinctive chemical and biological properties. Polymers like pectin with cell-instructive properties are attractive natural biomaterials for tissue repair and regeneration. In addition, bioactive pectin and pectin-based composites exhibit improved characteristics to deliver active molecules. Pectin and pectin-based composites serve as interactive matrices or scaffolds by stimulating cell adhesion and cell proliferation and enhancing tissue remodeling by forming an extracellular matrix in vivo. Several bioactive properties, such as immunoregulatory, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and antioxidant activities, contribute to the pectin's and pectin-based composite's enhanced applications in tissue engineering and drug delivery systems. Tissue engineering scaffolds containing pectin and pectin-based conjugates or composites demonstrate essential features such as nontoxicity, tunable mechanical properties, biodegradability, and suitable surface properties. The design and fabrication of pectic composites are versatile for tissue engineering and drug delivery applications. This article reviews the promising characteristics of pectin or pectic polysaccharides and pectin-based composites and highlights their potential biomedical applications, focusing on drug delivery and tissue engineering.

Pectin a multifaceted biopolymer in the management of cancer: A review

This review article focuses on the multifaceted roles of pectin in cancer management, namely as an oncotherapeutic delivery vehicle and a pharmacological agent. Over the past decades, the potential of pectin as a novel therapeutical agent for the prevention and/or management of cancer has gained increasing interest. Pectin has been found to modulate different mechanisms involved in the onset and progression of carcinogenesis, such as galectin-3 inhibition, caspase-3-induced apoptosis, and autophagy. Elucidating the structure-activity relationship provides insight into the relationship between the structure of pectin and different mechanism/s. The bioactivity of pectin, with respect to its structure, was critically discussed to give a better insight of the relationship between the structure of the extracted pectin and the observed bioactive effects. The rhamnogalacturonan I part of the pectin chain was found to bind to galectin-3, associated with several cancer hallmarks. The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential of pectin were also described. The roles of pectin as a treatment enhancer and a drug delivery vehicle for oncotherapeutics were critically defined. The scientific findings presented in this paper are expected to highlight the potential and role of pectin recovered from various plant sources in preventing and managing cancer.

Unveiling Plant-Based Pectins: Exploring the Interplay of Direct Effects, Fermentation, and Technological Applications in Clinical Research with a Focus on the Chemical Structure

Pectin, a plant-derived polysaccharide, possesses immense technological and biological application value. Several variables influence pectin's physicochemical aspects, resulting in different fermentations, interactions with receptors, and other functional properties. Some of those variables are molecular weight, degree of methylation and blockiness, and monosaccharide composition. Cancer cell cytotoxicity, important fermentation-related byproducts, immunomodulation, and technological application were found in cell culture, animal models, and preclinical and clinical assessments. One of the greater extents of recent pectin technological usage involves nanoencapsulation methods for many different compounds, ranging from chemotherapy and immunotherapy to natural extracts from fruits and other sources. Structural modification (modified pectin) is also utilized to enhance the use of dietary fiber. Although pectin is already recognized as a component of significant importance, there is still a need for a comprehensive review that delves into its intricate relationships with biological effects, which depend on the source and structure of pectin. This review covers all levels of clinical research, including cell culture, animal studies, and clinical trials, to understand how the plant source and pectin structures influence the biological effects in humans and some technological applications of pectin regarding human health.

Valorization of polyphenolic compounds from food industry by-products for application in polysaccharide-based nanoparticles

In the last decades, evidence has indicated the beneficial properties of dietary polyphenols. In vitro and in vivo studies support that the regular intake of these compounds may be a strategy to reduce the risks of some chronic non-communicable diseases. Despite their beneficial properties, they are poorly bioavailable compounds. Thus, the main objective of this review is to explore how nanotechnology improves human health while reducing environmental impacts with the sustainable use of vegetable residues, from extraction to the development of functional foods and supplements. This extensive literature review discusses different studies based on the application of nanotechnology to stabilize polyphenolic compounds and maintain their physical-chemical stability. Food industries commonly generate a significant amount of solid waste. Exploring the bioactive compounds of solid waste has been considered a sustainable strategy in line with emerging global sustainability needs. Nanotechnology can be an efficient tool to overcome the challenge of molecular instability, especially using polysaccharides such as pectin as assembling material. Complex polysaccharides are biomaterials that can be extracted from citrus and apple peels (from the juice industries) and constitute promising wall material stabilizing chemically sensitive compounds. Pectin is an excellent biomaterial to form nanostructures, as it has low toxicity, is biocompatible, and is resistant to human enzymes. The potential extraction of polyphenols and polysaccharides from residues and their inclusion in food supplements may be a possible application to reduce environmental impacts and constitutes an approach for effectively including bioactive compounds in the human diet. Extracting polyphenolics from industrial waste and using nanotechnology may be feasible to add value to food by-products, reduce impacts on nature and preserve the properties of these compounds.

A critical review of RG-I pectin: sources, extraction methods, structure, and applications

In recent years, RG-I pectin isolated by low-temperature alkaline extraction methods has attracted the attention of a large number of researchers due to its huge health benefits. However, studies on other applications of RG-I pectin are still lacking. In this study, we summarized the sources (e.g. potato pulp, sugar beet pulp, okra, apple pomace, citrus peel, pumpkin, grapefruit, ginseng, etc.), extraction methods, fine structure and applications of RG-I pectin in physiological activities (e.g. anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, anti-oxidation, immune regulation, prebiotics, etc.), emulsions, gels, etc. These neutral sugar side chains not only endow RG-I pectin with various physiological activities but the entanglement and cross-linking of these side chains also endow RG-I pectin with excellent emulsifying and gelling properties. We believe that this review can not only provide a comprehensive reading for new workers interested in RG-I pectin, but also provide a valuable reference for future research directions of RG-I pectin.

Extraction of polyphenols associated with pectin from olive waste (alperujo) with choline chloride

The main by-product from olive oil extraction (alperujo) was extracted with hot water, citric acid, natural deep eutectic solvent (choline chloride: citric acid), and only choline chloride. The purified extracts were composed of macromolecular complexes constituting polyphenols associated with pectin. The extracts were structurally characterized by FT-IR and solid-NMR spectroscopy and an in vitro test revealed distinct antioxidant and antiproliferative activity, depending on the extracting agents. The choline chloride-extracted complex contained the highest amount of polyphenols among the examined agents, which exhibited a strong antioxidant activity and significant antiproliferative capacity. However, the complex extracted by hot water showed the highest antiproliferative capacity in vitro against the colon carcinoma Caco-2 cell line. In this finding, choline chloride could be used as a novel, green and promising alternative to the conventional extracting agent for the production of complexes that combine the antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds and the physiological effects of pectic polysaccharides.

Pectin-based nanoencapsulation strategy to improve the bioavailability of bioactive compounds

Pectin is one of the polysaccharides to be used as a coating nanomaterial. The characteristics of pectin are suitable to form nanostructures for protection, increased absorption, and bioavailability of different active compounds. This review aims to point out the structural features of pectins and their use as nanocarriers. It also indicates the principal methodologies for the elaboration and application of foods. The research carried out shows that pectin is easily extracted from natural sources, biodegradable, biocompatible, and non-toxic. The mechanical resistance and stability in different pH ranges and the action of digestive enzymes allow the nanostructures to pass intact through the gastrointestinal system and be effectively absorbed. Pectin can bind to macromolecules, especially proteins, to form stable nanostructures, which can be formed by different methods; polyelectrolyte complexes are the most frequent ones. The pectin-derived nanoparticles could be added to foods and dietary supplements, demonstrating a promising nanocarrier with a broad technological application.

The Preparation and Potential Bioactivities of Modified Pectins: A Review

Pectins are complex polysaccharides that are widely found in plant cells and have a variety of bioactivities. However, the high molecular weights (Mw) and complex structures of natural pectins mean that they are difficult for organisms to absorb and utilize, limiting their beneficial effects. The modification of pectins is considered to be an effective method for improving the structural characteristics and promoting the bioactivities of pectins, and even adding new bioactivities to natural pectins. This article reviews the modification methods, including chemical, physical, and enzymatic methods, for natural pectins from the perspective of their basic information, influencing factors, and product identification. Furthermore, the changes caused by modifications to the bioactivities of pectins are elucidated, including their anti-coagulant, anti-oxidant, anti-tumor, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, and anti-bacterial activities and the ability to regulate the intestinal environment. Finally, suggestions and perspectives regarding the development of pectin modification are provided.

The Antiproliferative Activity of a Mixture of Peptide and Oligosaccharide Extracts Obtained from Defatted Rapeseed Meal on Breast Cancer Cells and Human Fibroblasts

Oligosaccharide and peptide extracts obtained separately from defatted rapeseed meal (DRM) have shown antiproliferative activities on the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line. However, oligosaccharide extracts were not tested on human fibroblasts and have low yields. The objective of the present study was to combine two antiproliferative extracts, the peptides and oligosaccharides, that were obtained independently with commercial enzymes from DRM, allowing improvement of the mass yield and antiproliferative activity. The DRM was solubilized in an alkaline medium to obtain an insoluble meal residue (IMR) and an alkaline extract (RAE). To produce the oligosaccharide extract from IMR, three enzymes and different enzyme/substrate ratios were used. The oligosaccharide extract (molecular weight <30 kDa) recovered with the commercial enzyme. Endogalacturonase showed an 80% inhibition on MCF-7 cells at 20 mg/mL. The combination of this oligosaccharide extract with the peptide extract (obtained with Alkalase 2.4 L from a RAE at 10 mg/mL) inhibited 84.3% of MCF-7 cells proliferation at a concentration of 20 mg/mL, exhibiting no cytotoxic effects on fibroblasts. The mass yield of the extract pool was 27.07% (based on initial DRM). It can be concluded that a mixture of antiproliferative extracts was produced from DRM which was selective against MCF-7 cells.

Highlights on the Role of Galectin-3 in Colorectal Cancer and the Preventive/Therapeutic Potential of Food-Derived Inhibitors

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of death worldwide. Despite advances in surgical and therapeutic management, tumor metastases and resistance to therapy still represent major hurdles. CRC risk is highly modifiable by lifestyle factors, including diet, which strongly influences both cancer incidence and related mortality. Galectin-3 (Gal-3) is a multifaceted protein involved in multiple pathophysiological pathways underlying chronic inflammation and cancer. Its versatility is given by the ability to participate in a wide range of tumor-promoting processes, including cell-cell/cell-matrix interactions, cell growth regulation and apoptosis, and the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. This review provides an updated summary of preclinical and observational human studies investigating the pathogenetic role of Gal-3 in intestinal inflammation and CRC, as well as the potential of Gal-3 activity inhibition by plant-source food-derived bioactive compounds to control CRC onset/growth. These studies highlight both direct and immuno-mediated effects of Gal-3 on tumor growth and invasiveness and its potential role as a CRC prognostic biomarker. Substantial evidence indicates natural food-derived Gal-3 inhibitors as promising candidates for CRC prevention and therapy. However, critical issues, such as their bioavailability and efficacy, in controlled human studies need to be addressed to translate research progress into clinical applications.

Pectin: A Bioactive Food Polysaccharide with Cancer Preventive Potential

Pectin is an acidic heteropolysaccharide found in the cell walls and the primary and middle lamella of land plants. To be authorized as a food additive, industrial pectins must meet strict guidelines set forth by the Food and Agricultural Organization and must contain at least 65% polygalacturonic acid to achieve the E440 level. Fruit pectin derived from oranges or apples is commonly used in the food industry to gel or thicken foods and to stabilize acid-based milk beverages. It is a naturally occurring component and can be ingested by dietary consumption of fruit and vegetables. Preventing long-term chronic diseases like diabetes and heart disease is an important role of dietary carbohydrates. Colon and breast cancer are among the diseases for which data suggest that modified pectin (MP), specifically modified citrus pectin (MCP), has beneficial effects on the development and spread of malignancies, in addition to its benefits as a soluble dietary fiber. Cellular and animal studies and human clinical trials have provided corroborating data. Although pectin has many diverse functional qualities, this review focuses on various modifications used to develop MP and its benefits for cancer prevention, bioavailability, clinical trials, and toxicity studies. This review concludes that pectin has anti-cancer characteristics that have been found to inhibit tumor development and proliferation in a wide variety of cancer cells. Nevertheless, further clinical and basic research is required to confirm the chemopreventive or therapeutic role of specific dietary carbohydrate molecules.

Potential of pectin for biomedical applications: a comprehensive review

Pectin is a polysaccharide extracted from various plants, such as apples, oranges, lemons, and it possesses some beneficial effects on human health, including being hypoglycemic and hypocholesterolemic. Therefore, pectin is used in various pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. Meanwhile, its low mechanical strength and fast degradation rate limit its usage as drug delivery devices and tissue engineering scaffolds. To enhance these properties, it can be modified or combined with other organic molecules or polymers and/or inorganic compounds. These materials can be prepared as nano sized drug carriers in the form of spheres, capsules, hydrogels, self assamled micelles, etc., for treatment purposes (mostly cancer). Different composites or blends of pectin can also be produced as membranes, sponges, hydrogels, or 3D printed matrices for tissue regeneration applications. This review is concentrated on the properties of pectin based materials and focus especially on the utilization of these materials as drug carriers and tissue engineering scaffolds, including 3D printed and 3D bioprinted systems covering the studies in the last decade and especially in the last 5 years.

Structure and bioactivity of apple pectin isolated with arabinanase and mannanase

It was assumed that, high purity endo-arabinanase and endo-mannanase could be useful in the isolation of pectin of enhanced health-promoting potential. Extraction was carried out with 50 U of enzymes per gram of apple pomace at 40 °C, obtaining up to 22% increase in effectiveness, as compared to the acid extraction. The pectins, despite their high M_w, were homogeneous and contained more galacturonic acid, rhamnose, galactose, fucose, and ferulic acid than the conventional product, thanks to which they quenched free radicals up to five times more efficiently. Compared with pectin with recognised anticancer and prebiotic activity, they had a significantly greater ability to inhibit proliferation and migration of HT-29 and B16F10 cells. They were also more effective in preventing the adhesion of E. coli and S. typhimurium to enterocytes. Endo-arabinanase- and endo-mannanase-assisted extraction is an effective method of obtaining pectins with enhanced antiradical, anticancer and prebiotic potential.

The Use of Endo-Cellulase and Endo-Xylanase for the Extraction of Apple Pectins as Factors Modifying Their Anticancer Properties and Affecting Their Synergy with the Active Form of Irinotecan

Pectin constitutes an essential component of dietary fiber. Modified pectins from various sources possess potent anticancer and immunomodulatory activities. In this study, two pectins isolated from apple pomace by Trichoderma enzyme treatment, PX (with endo-xylanase) and PCX (with both endo-cellulase and endo-xylanase), were studied in colon cancer cell lines (HCT 116, Caco-2, and HT-29). Both pectins reduced colon cancer cell viability, induced apoptosis, and increased intracellular amounts of reactive oxygen species. Additionally, synergy between pectin and an active form of irinotecan, SN-38, in all aspects mentioned above, was discovered. This drug is a common component of cytotoxic combinations recommended as treatment for colon cancer patients. PX and PCX demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory activity in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated cells. Interaction of apple pectins with galectin-3 and Toll-like Receptor 4 (TLR4) was suggested to be responsible for their anticancer and anti-inflammatory effect. Since PCX was more active than PX in almost all experiments, the role of the enzyme used to obtain the pectin for its biological activity was discussed. It was concluded that co-operation between both enzymes was needed to obtain the molecule of the most beneficial properties. The low molecular mass of PCX together with a high proportion of rhamnogalacturonan I (RG I) regions seemed to be crucial for its superior activity.

Valorization of citrus peel waste for the sustainable production of value-added products

Globally the generation and mismanagement of waste from fruit processing and post-harvest impose a severe burden on waste management strategies along with environmental pollution, health hazards. Citrus waste is one of such worrying fruit waste, which is rich in several value-added chemicals, including pectin. Pectin is a prebiotic polysaccharide possessing a multitude of health benefits. Citrus pectin has excellent gelling, thickening, water holding capacity, and encapsulating properties, which pave its functionality in versatile industrial fields including food processing and preservation, drug and therapeutic agents, cosmetics, and personal care products. The utilization of citrus wastes to derive valuable bioproducts can offer an effective approach towards sustainable waste management. With the ever-increasing demand, several strategies have been devised to increase the efficiency of pectin recovery from citrus waste. This review article discusses the sources, effect, and technology-mediated valorization of citrus waste, the functional and nutritive application of pectin along with its socio-economic and environmental perspective.

Structural features and anticancer mechanisms of pectic polysaccharides: A review

The anticancer activity of pectic polysaccharides (PPs) was proved by numerous studies, and which also indicated that the bioactivity of PPs was closely related to its complicated structures. Based on the summary and analysis about structure characteristics and corresponding enzymatic process of the reported PPs, the anticancer mechanism and related structural features were systematically clarified. It was found that not only the direct effects on the cancer cells by proliferation inhibition or apoptosis, but also the regulation of immune system, gut microbiota and gut metabolism as indirect effects, jointly played important roles in the anticancer of PPs. Nevertheless, during the study of PPs as promising anticancer components, the exact structure-function relationship, digestion process in vivo, and comprehensive action mechanism are still not well understanding. With the unveiling of the proposed issues, it is believed that PPs are promising to be exploited as effective cancer therapy/adjunctive therapy drugs or functional foods.

The Complex Biological Effects of Pectin: Galectin-3 Targeting as Potential Human Health Improvement?

Galectin-3 is the only chimeric representative of the galectin family. Although galectin-3 has ubiquitous regulatory and physiological effects, there is a great number of pathological environments where galectin-3 cooperatively participates. Pectin is composed of different chemical structures, such as homogalacturonans, rhamnogalacturonans, and side chains. The study of pectin's major structural aspects is fundamental to predicting the impact of pectin on human health, especially regarding distinct molecular modulation. One of the explored pectin's biological activities is the possible galectin-3 protein regulation. The present review focuses on revealing the structure/function relationship of pectins, their fragments, and their biological effects. The discussion highlighted by this review shows different effects described within in vitro and in vivo experimental models, with interesting and sometimes contradictory results, especially regarding galectin-3 interaction. The review demonstrates that pectins are promissory food-derived molecules for different bioactive functions. However, galectin-3 inhibition by pectin had been stated in literature before, although it is not a fully understood, experimentally convincing, and commonly agreed issue. It is demonstrated that more studies focusing on structural analysis and its relation to the observed beneficial effects, as well as substantial propositions of cause and effect alongside robust data, are needed for different pectin molecules' interactions with galectin-3.

Microneedle-Based Natural Polysaccharide for Drug Delivery Systems (DDS): Progress and Challenges

In this focused progress review, the most widely accepted methods of transdermal drug delivery are hypodermic needles, transdermal patches and topical creams. However, microneedles (MNs) (or microneedle arrays) are low-invasive 3D biomedical constructs that bypass the skin barrier and produce systemic and localized pharmacological effects. In the past, biomaterials such as carbohydrates, due to their physicochemical properties, have been extensively used to manufacture microneedles (MNs). Due to their wide range of functional groups, carbohydrates enable the design and development of tunable properties and functionalities. In recent years, numerous microneedle products have emerged on the market, although much research needs to be undertaken to overcome the various challenges before the successful introduction of microneedles into the market. As a result, carbohydrate-based microarrays have a high potential to achieve a future step in sensing, drug delivery, and biologics restitution. In this review, a comprehensive overview of carbohydrates such as hyaluronic acid, chitin, chitosan, chondroitin sulfate, cellulose and starch is discussed systematically. It also discusses the various drug delivery strategies and mechanical properties of biomaterial-based MNs, the progress made so far in the clinical translation of carbohydrate-based MNs, and the promotional opportunities for their commercialization. In conclusion, the article summarizes the future perspectives of carbohydrate-based MNs, which are considered as the new class of topical drug delivery systems.

Anti-Cancer Pectins and Their Role in Colorectal Cancer Treatment

A class of plant polysaccharides, pectin is known to display several medicinal properties including in cancer. There is some evidence that pectin from some fruits can reduce the severity of colorectal cancer (CRC) due to its antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, antimetastatic and pro-apoptotic properties. Pectin fermentation in the colon induces antiproliferative activity via butyrate. Research also showed that pectin acts as a potent inducer of programmed cell death and cell-cycle arrest, thereby selectively targeting cancer cells. Pectin can limit oxidative stress to maintain cellular homeostasis while increasing reactive oxygen species damage to activate cancer cell death. Pectin regulates various signaling cascades, e.g., signal transduction and transcriptional activator and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling, that contribute to its anticancer activity. By curbing inflammation-activated signaling and bolstering immune-protective mechanisms pectin can eradicate CRC. Due to its chemical structure, pectin can also inhibit galectin-3 and suppress tumor growth and metastasis. Prior reports also suggested that pectin is beneficial to use alongside the CRC standard care. Pectin can increase sensitivity to conventional CRC drugs, alleviate unwanted side effects and reduce drug resistance. Although some preclinical studies are promising, early clinical trials are showing some evidence for pectin's efficacy in tumor growth inhibition and preventing metastasis in some cancers; however, the clinical use of pectin in CRC therapy is not yet well established. Further studies are needed to confirm the efficacy of pectin treatment as a valid clinical therapy for CRC in humans.

Effects of pectins on colorectal cancer: targeting hallmarks as a support for future clinical trials

The intake of dietary fibers has been associated with a reduction in the risk of colorectal cancer.

Recent advances in utilization of pectins in biomedical applications: a review focusing on molecular structure-directing health-promoting properties

The numerous health benefits of pectins justify their inclusion in human diets and biomedical products. This review provides an overview of pectin extraction and modification methods, their physico-chemical characteristics, health-promoting properties, and pharmaceutical/biomedical applications. Pectins, as readily available and versatile biomolecules, can be tailored to possess specific functionalities for food, pharmaceutical and biomedical applications, through judicious selection of appropriate extraction and modification technologies/processes based on green chemistry principles. Pectin's structural and physicochemical characteristics dictate their effects on digestion and bioavailability of nutrients, as well as health-promoting properties including anticancer, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, intestinal microflora-regulating, immune barrier-strengthening, hypercholesterolemia-/arteriosclerosis-preventing, anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, antitussive, analgesic, anticoagulant, and wound healing effects. HG, RG-I, RG-II, molecular weight, side chain pattern, and degrees of methylation, acetylation, amidation and branching are critical structural elements responsible for optimizing these health benefits. The physicochemical characteristics, health functionalities, biocompatibility and biodegradability of pectins enable the construction of pectin-based composites with distinct properties for targeted applications in bioactive/drug delivery, edible films/coatings, nano-/micro-encapsulation, wound dressings and biological tissue engineering. Achieving beneficial synergies among the green extraction and modification processes during pectin production, and between pectin and other composite components in biomedical products, should be key foci for future research.

Pectins and Olive Pectins: From Biotechnology to Human Health

Simple Summary

Pectins comprise complex polysaccharides rich in galacturonic acid, that exert many functions in higher plants as components of the cell walls, together with cellulose or lignin. The food industry has traditionally used pectins as an additive due to their gelling or thickening properties. Pharmaceutical research is also taking advantage of pectin bioactivity, providing evidence of the role of these polysaccharides as health promoters. Fruits and vegetables are natural sources of pectins that can be obtained as by-products during food or beverage production. In line with this, the aim of our study is gathering data on the current methods to extract pectins from fruit or vegetable wastes, optimizing yield and environmentally friendly protocols. Updated information about pectin applications in food or non-food industries are provided. We also point to olives as novel source of pectins that strengthen the evidence that this fruit is as remarkably healthy part of the Mediterranean diet. This work exhibits the need to explore natural bioactive components of our daily intake to improve our health, or prevent or treat chronical diseases present in our society.

Abstract

Pectins are a component of the complex heteropolysaccharide mixture present in the cell wall of higher plants. Structurally, the pectin backbone includes galacturonic acid to which neutral sugars are attached, resulting in functional regions in which the esterification of residues is crucial. Pectins influence many physiological processes in plants and are used industrially for both food and non-food applications. Pectin-based compounds are also a promising natural source of health-beneficial bioactive molecules. The properties of pectins have generated interest in the extraction of these polysaccharides from natural sources using environmentally friendly protocols that maintain the native pectin structure. Many fruit by-products are sources of pectins; however, owing to the wide range of applications in various fields, novel plants are now being explored as potential sources. Olives, the fruit of the olive tree, are consumed as part of the healthy Mediterranean diet or processed into olive oil. Pectins from olives have recently emerged as promising compounds with health-beneficial effects. This review details the current knowledge on the structure of pectins and describes the conventional and novel techniques of pectin extraction. The versatile properties of pectins, which make them promising bioactive compounds for industry and health promotion, are also considered.

Structure and Applications of Pectin in Food, Biomedical, and Pharmaceutical Industry: A Review

Pectin is a biocompatible polysaccharide with intrinsic biological activity, which may exhibit different structures depending on its source or extraction method. The extraction of pectin from various industrial by-products presents itself as a green option for the valorization of agro-industrial residues by producing a high commercial value product. Pectin is susceptible to physical, chemical, and/or enzymatic changes. The numerous functional groups present in its structure can stimulate different functionalities, and certain modifications can enable pectin for countless applications in food, agriculture, drugs, and biomedicine. It is currently a trend to use pectin to produce edible coating to protect foodstuff, antimicrobial bio-based films, nanoparticles, healing agents, and cancer treatment. Advances in methodology, use of different sources of extraction, and knowledge about structural modification have significantly expanded the properties, yields, and applications of this polysaccharide. Recently, structurally modified pectin has shown better functional properties and bioactivities than the native one. In addition, pectin can be used in conjunction with a wide variety of biopolymers with differentiated properties and specific functionalities. In this context, this review presents the structural characteristics and properties of pectin and information on the modification of this polysaccharide, its respective applications, perspectives, and future challenges.

A review of chemical constituents and health-promoting effects of citrus peels

Citrus is one of the main fruits processed worldwide, producing a lot of industrial by-products. As the main part of citrus "residue", citrus peels have a wide application prospect. They could not only be directly used to produce various food products, but also be used as promising biofuels to produce ethanol and methane. Additionally, functional components (flavonoids, limonoids, alkaloids, essential oils and pectin) extracted from citrus peels have been related to the improvement of human health against active oxygen, inflammatory, cancer and metabolic disorders. Therefore, it is clear that the citrus peels have great potential to be developed into useful functional foods, medicines and biofuels. This review systematically summarizes the recent advances in current uses, processing, bioactive components and biological properties of citrus peels. A better understanding of citrus peels may provide reference for making full use of it.

Pectin in biomedical and drug delivery applications: A review

Natural macromolecules have attracted increasing attention due to their biocompatibility, low toxicity, and biodegradability. Pectin is one of the few polysaccharides with biomedical activity, consequently a candidate in biomedical and drug delivery Applications. Rhamnogalacturonan-II, a smaller component in pectin, plays a major role in biomedical activities. The ubiquitous presence of hydroxyl and carboxyl groups in pectin contribute to their hydrophilicity and, hence, to the favorable biocompatibility, low toxicity, and biodegradability. However, pure pectin-based materials present undesirable swelling and corrosion properties. The hydrophilic groups, via coordination, electrophilic addition, esterification, transesterification reactions, can contribute to pectin's physicochemical properties. Here the properties, extraction, and modification of pectin, which are fundamental to biomedical and drug delivery applications, are reviewed. Moreover, the synthesis, properties, and performance of pectin-based hybrid materials, composite materials, and emulsions are elaborated. The comprehensive review presented here can provide valuable information on pectin and its biomedical and drug delivery applications.

Newly Obtained Apple Pectin as an Adjunct to Irinotecan Therapy of Colorectal Cancer Reducing E. coli Adherence and β-Glucuronidase Activity

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second cause of cancer death worldwide. The composition and enzymatic activity of colonic microbiota can significantly affect the effectiveness of CRC chemotherapy. Irinotecan is a drug widely used to treat colon cancer. However, the transformation of a drug-glucuronide (SN-38G) back to its active form (SN-38) by bacterial β-glucuronidase (GUS) constitutes the primary reason for the observed intestinal toxicity of irinotecan. It was demonstrated that novel enzymatically extracted apple pectin (PC) might be a promising candidate for an adjunct to irinotecan therapy. PC itself reduced the viability of HCT 116 and Caco-2 colorectal cancer cells, induced apoptosis, and increased intracellular reactive oxygen species production. Moreover, PC enhanced the cytotoxic and proapoptotic effect of irinotecan (at concentrations below its IC₅₀), i.e., synergistic effect was recorded. Additionally, PC exhibited potent anti-inflammatory properties and prevented adhesion of prototype adherent-invasive E. coli (AIEC) LF82 strain and laboratory K-12_C600 strain to colon cancer cells. PC was also identified to be an effective inhibitor of bacterial GUS activity. Altogether, novel apple pectin was identified as a promising candidate for a supplement to irinotecan therapy that might alleviate its side-effects via inhibition of bacterial GUS and thus increasing its therapeutic efficacy.

Enzymatically Extracted Apple Pectin Possesses Antioxidant and Antitumor Activity

The biological activity of apple pectin extracted conventionally or enzymatically using endo-xylanase and endo-cellulase, was tested in vitro. The analyses were performerd in tetraplicates and the statistical significance of the differences were assessed using ANOVA, Tukey post hoc and LSD (the least significant difference) tests. Multivariate regression analysis was applied to determine the structural components that have a crucial importance for antioxidant and antitumor properties of pectins. The pectins extracted by enzymes contained up to four times more ferulic acid and showed twice as great ability to neutralize free radicals and Fe(III) reduction. The antiradical potential positively correlated with phenols, fucose and rhamnose content. In the assays performed on HT-29 human adenocarcinoma and B16F10 melanoma cell cultures, the “green” pectins, contrary to acid isolated ones, exhibited remarkable anti-neoplastic potential while being nontoxic to nontransformed L929 cell line. The pectins in the dose of 1 mg/mL were capable of inhibiting adhesion (max 23.1%), proliferation (max 40.4%), invasion (max 76.9%) and anchorage-independent growth (max 90%) of HT-29 cells (significance level p < 0.001). These pectin preparations were slightly less active towards B16F10 cells. The enzyme-isolated apple pectins may be useful as a functional food additive and an ingredient of the ointment formulas for post-surgical melanoma treatment.

Functional hydrocolloids, gut microbiota and health: picking food additives for personalized nutrition

The human gut microbiota respond to particular food components, interact with intestinal mucosa and thereby contribute to health and diseases. Key microbiome features are under comprehensive investigation and are likely to be developed as reliable evidences for clinical diagnosis. And the underlying mechanisms lay the foundation of assembling bespoke nutritional ingredients including functional food additives that may lead to favorable outcomes in facilitating amelioration of host dysfunctions. Functional hydrocolloids serve as multiple food additives with promising application prospects and outstanding adjunctive beneficial characteristics. Therefore, in this review, we introduce the latest advances in food additives-gut microbiota-host axis by summarizing the physiochemical and physiological properties of a collection of functional hydrocolloids from various sources, describing the functional hydrocolloids-related intestinal commensal markers, and deciphering the underlying mechanisms of their beneficial effects, and propose the feasibilities and guidelines for further developments of gut microbiota-oriented personalized nutrition.

Impacts of thermal and non-thermal processing on structure and functionality of pectin in fruit- and vegetable- based products: A review

Pectin, a major polysaccharide found in the cell walls of higher plants, plays major roles in determining the physical and nutritional properties of fruit- and vegetable-based products. An in-depth understanding of the effects of processing operations on pectin structure and functionality is critical for designing better products. This review, therefore, focuses on the progress made in understanding the effects of processing on pectin structure, further on pectin functionality, consequently on product properties. The effects of processing on pectin structure are highly dependent on the processing conditions. Targeted control of pectin structure by applying various processing operations could enhance textural, rheological, nutritional properties and cloud stability of products. While it seems that optimizing product quality in terms of physical properties is counteracted by optimizing the nutritional properties. Therefore, understanding plant component biosynthesis mechanisms and processing mechanisms could be a major challenge to balance among the quality indicators of processed products.

Modified citrus pectins by UV/H2O2 oxidation at acidic and basic conditions: Structures and in vitro anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative activities

Two modified citrus pectins, MCP4 and MCP10, were prepared by UV/H₂O₂ treatment at pH 4 and pH 10, respectively, and their structures were characterized. MCP10 had a rhamnogalacturonan-I (RG-I) enriched backbone with a high degree of branching (DB ∼61 %) and a low methoxylation degree (24 %). MCP4 had a homogalacturonan enriched backbone with a high degree (46 %) of methoxylation and a low DB (∼41 %) of RG-I branches. MCP10 exhibited a higher anti-inflammatory activity than MCP4 in suppressing the NF-κB expression and the production of pro-inflammatory factors TNF-α and IL-1β of THP-1 cells stimulated by lipopolysaccharide. MCP10 also showed a stronger inhibitory effect on Caco-2 cell proliferation. The stronger bioactivities of MCP10 may be attributable to the abundant branches and the proper length of terminal galactan residues attached to the RG-I domain.