A novel pH-sensitive targeting polysaccharide-gold nanorod conjugate for combined photothermal-chemotherapy of breast cancer

Galloyl-boosted gold nanorods: Unleashing personalized cancer immunotherapy potential

Cancer immunotherapy has emerged as a potent treatment strategy by harnessing the host immune system to target cancer cells. However, challenges including low tumor vaccine immunogenicity and tumor heterogeneity hinder its clinical efficacy. To address these issues, we propose a novel nanoplatform integrating photothermal material gold nanorods (GNRs) with polyphenols for enhanced immunotherapy efficacy via photothermal therapy. Polyphenols, natural compounds with phenolic hydroxyl groups, are known for their ability to bind tightly to various molecules, making them ideal for antigen capture. We synthesized GNRs modified with polyphenols (GNR-PA and GNR-GA) and demonstrated their ability to induce immunogenic cell death upon laser irradiation, releasing tumor-associated antigens (TAAs). The surface polyphenols on GNRs effectively captured released TAAs to shield them from clearance. In vivo studies confirmed increased accumulation of GNR-GA in lymph nodes and enhanced dendritic cell maturation, leading to promoted effector T cell infiltration into tumors. Furthermore, treatment combined with PD-1/PD-L1 pathway blockade demonstrated potent tumor regression and systemic immunotherapy efficacy. Our findings highlight the potential of this photothermal nanoplatform as a promising strategy to overcome the limitations of current cancer immunotherapy approaches and improve therapeutic outcomes.

Folate-engineered chitosan nanoparticles: next-generation anticancer nanocarriers

Chitosan nanoparticles (NPs) are well-recognized as promising vehicles for delivering anticancer drugs due to their distinctive characteristics. They have the potential to enclose hydrophobic anticancer molecules, thereby enhancing their solubilities, permeabilities, and bioavailabilities; without the use of surfactant, i.e., through surfactant-free solubilization. This allows for higher drug concentrations at the tumor sites, prevents excessive toxicity imparted by surfactants, and could circumvent drug resistance. Moreover, biomedical engineers and formulation scientists can also fabricate chitosan NPs to slowly release anticancer agents. This keeps the drugs at the tumor site longer, makes therapy more effective, and lowers the frequency of dosing. Notably, some types of cancer cells (fallopian tube, epithelial tumors of the ovary, and primary peritoneum; lung, kidney, ependymal brain, uterus, breast, colon, and malignant pleural mesothelioma) have overexpression of folate receptors (FRs) on their outer surface, which lets folate-drug conjugate-incorporated NPs to target and kill them more effectively. Strikingly, there is evidence suggesting that the excessively produced FR&αgr (isoforms of the FR) stays consistent throughout treatment in ovarian and endometrial cancer, indicating resistance to conventional treatment; and in this regard, folate-anchored chitosan NPs can overcome it and improve the therapeutic outcomes. Interestingly, overly expressed FRs are present only in certain tumor types, which makes them a promising biomarker for predicting the effectiveness of FR-targeted therapy. On the other hand, the folate-modified chitosan NPs can also enhance the oral absorption of medicines, especially anticancer drugs, and pave the way for effective and long-term low-dose oral metronomic scheduling of poorly soluble and permeable drugs. In this review, we talked briefly about the techniques used to create, characterize, and tailor chitosan-based NPs; and delved deeper into the potential applications of folate-engineered chitosan NPs in treating various cancer types.

Gold nanorods as biocompatible nano-agents for the enhanced photothermal therapy in skin disorders

Rod-shaped gold nanomaterials, known as gold nanorods (GNRs), may undergo specific surface alterations, because of their straightforward surface chemistry. This feature makes them appropriate for use as functional and biocompatible nano-formulations. By optimizing the absorption of longitudinally localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) in the near-infrared (NIR) region, which corresponds to the NIR bio-tissue window, GNRs with appropriate modifications may improve the results of photothermal treatment (PTT). In dermatology, potential noninvasive uses of GNRs to enhance wound healing, manage infections, combat cutaneous malignancies, and remodel skin tissues via PTT have attracted research attention in recent years. In this review, the basic properties of GNRs, such as shape, size, optical performance, photothermal efficiency, and metabolism, are discussed firstly. Then, the disadvantages of using these particles in photodynamic therapy (PDT) are proposed. Next, biological applications of GNRs-based PTT are summarized in detail. Finally, the limitations and future perspectives of this research are summarized, providing a comprehensive outlook for prospective GNRs with PTT.

Development of pH-responsive porphyran-coated gold nanorods for tumor photothermal and immunotherapy

Cancer poses a significant threat to human health, and monotherapy frequently fails to achieve optimal therapeutic outcomes. Based on this premise, porphyran (PHP), a marine polysaccharide with immunomodulatory function, was used as a framework to coat gold nanorods and construct a novel nanomedicine (PHP-MPBA-GNRs) combining photothermal therapy and immunotherapy. In this design, PHP not only maintained the dispersion stability and photothermal stability of gold nanorods but also could be released under weakly acidic conditions to activate anti-tumor immunity. In vivo studies have shown that PHP-MPBA-GNRs can effectively inhibit tumor cell proliferation and reduce metastasis under near-infrared (NIR) light irradiation. Preliminary mechanistic investigations revealed that PHP-MPBA-GNRs could increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) and induce apoptosis in cancer cells. The PHP in PHP-MPBA-GNRs can also activate dendritic cells and up-regulate the expression of co-stimulatory molecules and antigen-presenting complexes. All biological experiments, including in vivo tests, demonstrated that PHP-MPBA-GNRs achieved a combination of photothermal therapy and immunotherapy for tumors.

Gold nanorod-chitosan based nanocomposites for photothermal and chemoembolization therapy of breast cancer

Gold nanorods (AuNR) have received significant attention in tumor thermo-chemotherapy. However, insufficient thermal availability limits the in vivo highly efficient applications of AuNR in photothermal therapy. In this study, we have fabricated N-isopropylacrylamide grafted O-carboxymethyl chitosan nanoparticles (NCMC NPs) with thermo-responsive properties for co-encapsulating AuNR and doxorubicin (DOX), forming AuNR@NCMC/DOX nanocomposites (NCs). As a result of the thermo- and photothermal-responsiveness, AuNR@NCMC/DOX NCs exhibited irreversible aggregation at high temperature and under near-infrared (NIR) irradiation with an increase of size to 3 μm. When AuNR@NCMC/DOX NCs reached tumor sites following intravenous administration, they were located in the tumor vessels under NIR irradiation due to an embolization effect. This response enhanced tumor targeting, on-demand release, and the thermal performance of AuNR@NCMC/DOX NCs. We have observed higher tumor accumulation of DOX and AuNR with subsequent stronger inhibition of tumor growth than that achieved without NIR irradiation. The development of AuNR-based NCs with multiple smart responsivenesses at tumors can provide a promising paradigm for solid tumor treatment via the cooperative effects of photothermal therapy and chemoembolization.

Classification and design strategies of polysaccharide-based nano-nutrient delivery systems for enhanced bioactivity and targeted delivery: A review

Since many nutrients are highly sensitive, they cannot be absorbed and utilized efficiently by the body. Using nano-delivery systems to encapsulate nutrients is an effective method of solving the problems associated with the application of nutrients at this stage. Polysaccharides, as natural biomaterials, have a unique chemical structure, ideal biocompatibility, biodegradability and low immunogenicity. This makes polysaccharides powerful carriers that can enhance the biological activity of nutrients. However, the true role of polysaccharide-based delivery systems requires an in-depth understanding of the structural and physicochemical characteristics of polysaccharide-based nanodelivery systems, as well as effective modulation of the intestinal delivery mechanism and the latest advances in nano-encapsulation. This review provides an overview of polysaccharide-based nano-delivery systems dependent on different carrier types, emphasizing recent advances in the application of polysaccharides, a biocomposite material designed for nutrient delivery systems. Strategies for polysaccharide-based nano-delivery systems to enhance the bioavailability of orally administered nutrients from the perspective of the intestinal absorption barrier are presented. Characterization methods for polysaccharide-based nano-delivery systems are presented as well as an explanation of the formation mechanisms behind nano-delivery systems from the perspective of molecular forces. Finally, we discussed the challenges currently facing polysaccharide-based nano-delivery systems as well as possible future directions for the future.

DOX-loaded mesoporous hydroxyapatite modified by hyaluronic acid can achieve efficient targeted therapy for lung cancer

It is a novel therapeutic strategy to suppress tumour growth and metastasis by regulating the interaction between bioactivity ions and the biological process of tumour cells. This study synthesised a mesoporous hydroxyapatite (MHAP)-based nanocarrier for targeted delivery of the anti-cancer drug doxorubicin (DOX). To further strengthen the targeting of DOX-loaded nanocarrier to tumour, HA that could specifically identify receptor on the surface of tumours was functionally modified. The drug release properties curve showed that the MHAP-HA@DOX complex showed pH-sensitive and sustained release properties. Also, the MHAP-HA@DOX complex represented high toxicity against lung cancer A549 cells. Besides, it displayed a significant inhibitory effect on tumour growth rate in tumour-bearing mice, while no evident toxicity for mice was observed. This nano-material is hoped to be an effective and novel nano-drug for lung cancer.

Hyaluronic Acid Modified Metal Nanoparticles and Their Derived Substituents for Cancer Therapy: A Review

The use of metal nanoparticles (M-NPs) in cancer therapy has gained significant consideration owing to their exceptional physical and chemical features. However, due to the limitations, such as specificity and toxicity towards healthy cells, their application in clinical translations has been restricted. Hyaluronic acid (HA), a biocompatible and biodegradable polysaccharide, has been extensively used as a targeting moiety, due to its ability to selectively bind to the CD44 receptors overexpressed on cancer cells. The HA-modified M-NPs have demonstrated promising results in improving specificity and efficacy in cancer therapy. This review discusses the significance of nanotechnology, the state of cancers, and the functions of HA-modified M-NPs, and other substituents in cancer therapy applications. Additionally, the role of various types of selected noble and non-noble M-NPs used in cancer therapy are described, along with the mechanisms involved in cancer targeting. Additionally, the purpose of HA, its sources and production processes, as well as its chemical and biological properties are described. In-depth explanations are provided about the contemporary applications of HA-modified noble and non-noble M-NPs and other substituents in cancer therapy. Furthermore, potential obstacles in optimizing HA-modified M-NPs, in terms of clinical translations, are discussed, followed by a conclusion and future prospects.

Multifunctional gold nanorods in low-temperature photothermal interactions for combined tumor starvation and RNA interference therapy

Collateral damage to healthy tissue, uneven heat distribution, inflammatory diseases, and tumor metastasis induction hinder the translation of high-temperature photothermal therapy (PTT) from bench to practical clinical applications. In this report, a multifunctional gold nanorod (GNR)-based nanosystem was designed by attaching siRNA against B7-H3 (B7-H3si), glucose oxidase (GOx), and hyaluronic acid (HA) for efficient low-temperature PTT. Herein, GOx can not only exhaust glucose to induce starvation therapy but also reduce the heat shock protein (HSP), realizing the ablation of tumors without damage to healthy tissues. Evidence shows that B7-H3, a type I transmembrane glycoprotein molecule, plays essential roles in growth, metastasis, and drug resistance. By initiating the downregulation of B7-H3 by siRNA, siRNA-GOx/GNR@HA NPs may promote the effectiveness of treatment. By targeting cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44) and depleting B7-H3 and HSPs sequentially, siRNA-GOx/GNR@HA NPs showed 12.9-fold higher lung distribution than siRNA-GOx/GNR NPs. Furthermore, 50% of A549-bearing mice in the siRNA-GOx/GNR NPs group survived over 50 days. Overall, this low-temperature phototherapeutic nanosystem provides an appropriate strategy for eliminating cancer with high treatment effectiveness and minimal systemic toxicity. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: To realize efficient tumor ablation under mild low-temperature (42-45 ℃) and RNA interference simultaneously, here we developed a multifunctional gold nanorod (GNR)-based nanosystem (siRNA-GOx/GNR@HA NPs). This nanoplatform can significantly inhibit tumor cell proliferation and induce cell apoptosis by downregulation of HSP90α, HSP70, B7-H3, p-AKT, and p-ERK and upregulation of cleaved caspase-9 at mild low-temperature due to its superior tumor homing ability and the combined effect of photothermal effect, glucose deprivation-initiated tumor starvation, and B7-H3 gene silence effect. It is believed that this multifunctional low-temperature photothermal nanosystem with efficient and specific anticancer properties, shows a potential application in clinical tumor treatment.

Carbohydrate polymer-based nanocomposites for breast cancer treatment

Breast cancer is known as the most common invasive malignancy in women with the highest mortality rate worldwide. This concerning disease may be presented in situ (relatively easier treatment) or be invasive, especially invasive ductal carcinoma which is highly worrisome nowadays. Among several strategies used in breast cancer treatment, nanotechnology-based targeted therapy is currently being investigated, as it depicts advanced technological features able of preventing drugs' side effects on normal cells while effectively acting on tumor cells. In this context, carbohydrate polymer-based nanocomposites have gained particular interest among the biomedical community for breast cancer therapy applications due to their advantage features, including abundance in nature, biocompatibility, straightforward fabrication methods, and good physicochemical properties. In this review, the physicochemical properties and biological activities of carbohydrate polymers and their derivate nanocomposites were discussed. Then, various methods for the fabrication of carbohydrate polymer-based nanocomposites as well as their application in breast cancer therapy and future perspectives were discussed.

Nano-biotechnology in tumour and cancerous disease: A perspective review

In recent years, drug manufacturers and researchers have begun to consider the nanobiotechnology approach to improve the drug delivery system for tumour and cancer diseases. In this article, we review current strategies to improve tumour and cancer drug delivery, which mainly focuses on sustaining biocompatibility, biodistribution, and active targeting. The conventional therapy using cornerstone drugs such as fludarabine, cisplatin etoposide, and paclitaxel has its own challenges especially not being able to discriminate between tumour versus normal cells which eventually led to toxicity and side effects in the patients. In contrast to the conventional approach, nanoparticle-based drug delivery provides target-specific delivery and controlled release of the drug, which provides a better therapeutic window for treatment options by focusing on the eradication of diseased cells via active targeting and sparing normal cells via passive targeting. Additionally, treatment of tumours associated with the brain is hampered by the impermeability of the blood-brain barriers to the drugs, which eventually led to poor survival in the patients. Nanoparticle-based therapy offers superior delivery of drugs to the target by breaching the blood-brain barriers. Herein, we provide an overview of the properties of nanoparticles that are crucial for nanotechnology applications. We address the potential future applications of nanobiotechnology targeting specific or desired areas. In particular, the use of nanomaterials, biostructures, and drug delivery methods for the targeted treatment of tumours and cancer are explored.

Recent updates in click and computational chemistry for drug discovery and development

Drug discovery is a costly and time-consuming process with a very high failure rate. Recently, click chemistry and computer-aided drug design (CADD) represent popular areas for new drug development. Herein, we summarized the recent updates in click and computational chemistry for drug discovery and development including clicking to effectively synthesize druggable candidates, synthesis and modification of natural products, targeted delivery systems, and computer-aided drug discovery for target identification, seeking out and optimizing lead compounds, ADMET prediction as well as compounds synthesis, hopefully, inspires new ideas for novel drug development in the future.

Gold nanorods-loaded chitosan-based nanomedicine platform enabling an effective tumor regression in vivo

The clinical utility of 7-ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin (SN-38) is hampered by its low water solubility and reduced bioactivity at neutral or alkaline conditions. The rational design of an effective drug delivery system that can significantly enhance the therapeutic index of SN-38 and achieve complete tumor regression still remains a challenge. Herein, chitosan-based hybrid nanoparticles system co-loading with chemotherapeutic drug SN-38 and gold nanorods (AuNRs) was engineered for effective combinational photothermal-chemotherapy. To increase the solubility of SN-38, soluble polymeric prodrug poly (l-glutamic acid)-SN38 (l-PGA-SN38) was firstly synthesized and then complexed with chitosan to form stable nanomedicine via a mild and facile way without using any organic solvent or surfactant. Upon introducing AuNRs into chitosan-based nanomedicine by coordination interaction between the amine group of chitosan and AuNRs, the hybrid nanoparticles exhibited distinct synergistic therapeutic effect compared with single chemotherapy or photothermal treatment in vitro and in vivo. Almost complete tumor regression was achieved after 21-day treatment of the developed hybrid nanoparticles and showed no recurrence for at least 60 days.

M, Zarrintaj P, Formela K, Saeb MR, Bencherif SA. Clickable Polysaccharides for Biomedical Applications: A Comprehensive Review

Recent advances in materials science and engineering highlight the importance of designing sophisticated biomaterials with well-defined architectures and tunable properties for emerging biomedical applications. Click chemistry, a powerful method allowing specific and controllable bioorthogonal reactions, has revolutionized our ability to make complex molecular structures with a high level of specificity, selectivity, and yield under mild conditions. These features combined with minimal byproduct formation have enabled the design of a wide range of macromolecular architectures from quick and versatile click reactions. Furthermore, copper-free click chemistry has resulted in a change of paradigm, allowing researchers to perform highly selective chemical reactions in biological environments to further understand the structure and function of cells. In living systems, introducing clickable groups into biomolecules such as polysaccharides (PSA) has been explored as a general approach to conduct medicinal chemistry and potentially help solve healthcare needs. De novo biosynthetic pathways for chemical synthesis have also been exploited and optimized to perform PSA-based bioconjugation inside living cells without interfering with their native processes or functions. This strategy obviates the need for laborious and costly chemical reactions which normally require extensive and time-consuming purification steps. Using these approaches, various PSA-based macromolecules have been manufactured as building blocks for the design of novel biomaterials. Clickable PSA provides a powerful and versatile toolbox for biomaterials scientists and will increasingly play a crucial role in the biomedical field. Specifically, bioclick reactions with PSA have been leveraged for the design of advanced drug delivery systems and minimally invasive injectable hydrogels. In this review article, we have outlined the key aspects and breadth of PSA-derived bioclick reactions as a powerful and versatile toolbox to design advanced polymeric biomaterials for biomedical applications such as molecular imaging, drug delivery, and tissue engineering. Additionally, we have also discussed the past achievements, present developments, and recent trends of clickable PSA-based biomaterials such as 3D printing, as well as their challenges, clinical translatability, and future perspectives.

Hydrazide-manganese coordinated multifunctional nanoplatform for potentiating immunotherapy in hepatocellular carcinoma

Immune checkpoint blockade (ICB)-based immunotherapy is a revolutionary therapeutic strategy for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, tumor immune tolerance and escape severely restrict the therapeutic efficacy of ICB therapy. It is urgent to explore new strategies to potentiate ICB therapy in HCC. Herein, we developed manganese oxide-crosslinked bovine albumin/hyaluronic acid nanoparticles (BHM) by an innovative hydrazide-manganese coordination and desolvation process. Successive loading of doxorubicin (DOX) and indocyanine green (ICG) was achieved via hydrazone linkage and electrostatic interactions, respectively, obtaining DOX/ICG-coloaded BHM nanoplatform (abbreviated as BHMDI). The BHMDI nanoplatform exhibited a high drug content (>46%) and pH/reduction dual-responsive drug release behavior. The nanoplatform could efficiently alleviate tumor hypoxia by catalytic decomposition of intracellular H₂O₂ to O₂ and significantly improve BHMDI-based photodynamic chemotherapy efficacy. The BHMDI nanoplatform downregulated the proportion of alternatively activated (M2) macrophages in tumors and simultaneously induced immunogenic death of HCC cells, thus promoting the maturation of dendritic cells and ensuing priming of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells. Importantly, programmed death-1 (PD-1) blockade in combination with BHMDI nanoplatform not only eradicated primary tumors but inhibited tumor recurrence, abscopal tumor growth and lung metastasis of HCC by triggering robust systemic antitumor immunity. This work proved the feasibility of BHMDI-based photodynamic chemotherapy for potentiating PD-1 blockade immunotherapy by reversing hypoxic and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment.

Gold Nanorod-Assisted Photothermal Therapy and Improvement Strategies

Noble metal nanoparticles have been sought after in cancer nanomedicine during the past two decades, owing to the unique localized surface plasmon resonance that induces strong absorption and scattering properties of the nanoparticles. A popular application of noble metal nanoparticles is photothermal therapy, which destroys cancer cells by heat generated by laser irradiation of the nanoparticles. Gold nanorods have stood out as one of the major types of noble metal nanoparticles for photothermal therapy due to the facile tuning of their optical properties in the tissue penetrative near infrared region, strong photothermal conversion efficiency, and long blood circulation half-life after surface modification with stealthy polymers. In this review, we will summarize the optical properties of gold nanorods and their applications in photothermal therapy. We will also discuss the recent strategies to improve gold nanorod-assisted photothermal therapy through combination with chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy.

Gold Nanorods for Drug and Gene Delivery: An Overview of Recent Advancements

Over the past few decades, gold nanomaterials have shown great promise in the field of nanotechnology, especially in medical and biological applications. They have become the most used nanomaterials in those fields due to their several advantageous. However, rod-shaped gold nanoparticles, or gold nanorods (GNRs), have some more unique physical, optical, and chemical properties, making them proper candidates for biomedical applications including drug/gene delivery, photothermal/photodynamic therapy, and theranostics. Most of their therapeutic applications are based on their ability for tunable heat generation upon exposure to near-infrared (NIR) radiation, which is helpful in both NIR-responsive cargo delivery and photothermal/photodynamic therapies. In this review, a comprehensive insight into the properties, synthesis methods and toxicity of gold nanorods are overviewed first. For the main body of the review, the therapeutic applications of GNRs are provided in four main sections: (i) drug delivery, (ii) gene delivery, (iii) photothermal/photodynamic therapy, and (iv) theranostics applications. Finally, the challenges and future perspectives of their therapeutic application are discussed.

Hydrazided hyaluronan/cisplatin/indocyanine green coordination nanoprodrug for photodynamic chemotherapy in liver cancer

It is still a huge challenge for concurrent highly efficient loading of chemotherapeutic agent and photosensitizer into single nanocarrier via stimuli-responsive linkages due to their different physicochemical properties and pharmacokinetics. Herein, based on the discovery of unique cisplatin-hydrazide and cisplatin-indocyanine green (ICG) coordination reactions, a multifunctional coordination nanoprodrug, cisplatin/ICG co-loaded hydrazided hyaluronan/bovine serum albumin (HBCI) nanoparticles, was developed by a desolvation-dual coordination process. The nanoprodrug exhibited ultrahigh drug loading efficiency and glutathione/NIR light dual-responsive drug release behavior. In vitro cellular studies demonstrated efficient internalization and apoptosis-inducing ability of the nanoprodrug in HepG2 cells. In vivo results confirmed the efficacious tumor accumulation and biosafety of HBCI nanoprodrug and synergistic effect of HBCI-based combined photodynamic chemotherapy on inhibiting tumor growth. Overall, this work not only provides a novel dual coordination approach for highly efficient loading of cisplatin and ICG but also verifies the therapeutic potential of HBCI nanoprodrug in combating hepatocellular carcinoma.

Preparation and synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy of redox-responsive carboxymethyl cellulose/chitosan complex nanoparticles

Chemo-photothermal combination therapy has great promise for enhanced tumor treatment. Hereby, we developed a complex nanoparticle using electrostatic absorption method, in which the inner chitosan (CS) NPs loaded polypyrrole (PPy) nanoparticles and 5-fluorouracil (5Fu), the outer shell was carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) crosslinked with disulfide. The drug loaded polysaccharide complex nanoparticles displayed good photothermal effects, and the drug release would be triggered by multi-model response of NIR irradiation, high glutathione (GSH) and weak acidity in tumor environment. In vitro biological studies indicated the nanopartiles could be effectively internalized by HepG2 cancer cells. Moreover, the remarkable inhibition of the CMC complex PPy and 5Fu loaded CS nanoparticles (CMC/CS@PPy + 5Fu NPs) against tumor growth was achieved in HepG2-bearing mice model, suggesting its great potential for synergetic chemo-photothermal therapy.

Recent advancements in synthesis and drug delivery utilization of polysaccharides-based nanocomposites: The important role of nanoparticles and layered double hydroxides

Drug delivery systems are explained as methods to deliver a specific drug to desired organs, tissues, and cells for drug release to diseases treatment. Recently, considerable development has been interested in stimuli-responsive nano-systems, which respond to the essential pathological and physicochemical issues in diseased sites. During the last decades, researchers in the world presented, investigated, and implemented novel different nanomaterials with a focus on developing drug delivery. Polysaccharides including chitosan, alginate, hyaluronic acid, gums, and cellulose, as natural bio-materials, are suitable candidates for designing and formulations of these nano-systems because of the outstanding merits such as bio-compatibility, bio-degradability, non-toxicity, and gelling characteristics. On the other side, nanoparticles including metals (Au, Ag), metal oxides (Fe₃O₄, ZnO, CuO), or non-metal oxides (SiO₂) and also, layered double hydroxides nanostructures have appealed significant consideration in the fields of biomedical therapeutics and cancer therapy owing to the bio-compatibility, great surface area, good chemical and mechanical features, and also proper magnetic characteristics. This comprehensive review provides an overview of current advancements in drug delivery strategies, and manufacturing methods using chitosan, alginate, hyaluronic acid, gums, and also, metals, metal oxides, non-metal oxides, and LDHs for delivery system uses.

Gold Nanorods: The Most Versatile Plasmonic Nanoparticles

Gold nanorods (NRs), pseudo-one-dimensional rod-shaped nanoparticles (NPs), have become one of the burgeoning materials in the recent years due to their anisotropic shape and adjustable plasmonic properties. With the continuous improvement in synthetic methods, a variety of materials have been attached around Au NRs to achieve unexpected or improved plasmonic properties and explore state-of-the-art technologies. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the latest progress on Au NRs, the most versatile anisotropic plasmonic NPs. We present a representative overview of the advances in the synthetic strategies and outline an extensive catalogue of Au-NR-based heterostructures with tailored architectures and special functionalities. The bottom-up assembly of Au NRs into preprogrammed metastructures is then discussed, as well as the design principles. We also provide a systematic elucidation of the different plasmonic properties associated with the Au-NR-based structures, followed by a discussion of the promising applications of Au NRs in various fields. We finally discuss the future research directions and challenges of Au NRs.

Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles of Targeted Drug Delivery System in Breast Cancer Treatment

Breast cancer remains one of the world's most dangerous diseases because of the difficulty of finding cost-effective and specific targets for effective and efficient treatment methods. The biodegradability and biocompatibility properties of chitosan-based nanoparticles (ChNPs) have good prospects for targeted drug delivery systems. ChNPs can transfer various antitumor drugs to targeted sites via passive and active targeting pathways. The modification of ChNPs has attracted the researcher to the loading of drugs to targeted cancer cells. The objective of our review was to summarize and discuss the modification in ChNPs in delivering anticancer drugs against breast cancer cells from published papers recorded in Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar. In order to improve cellular uptake, drug accumulation, cytotoxicity, and selectivity, we examined different kinds of modification of ChNPs. Notably, these forms of ChNPs use the characteristics of the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect as a proper parameter and different biological ligands, such as proteins, peptides, monoclonal antibodies, and small particles. In addition, as a targeted delivery system, ChNPs provided and significantly improved the delivery of drugs into specific breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231, 4T1 cells, SK-BR-3, MCF-7, T47D). In conclusion, a promising technique is presented for increasing the efficacy, selectivity, and effectiveness of candidate drug carriers in the treatment of breast cancer.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of biotin-conjugated Portulaca oleracea polysaccharides

Biotinylated Portulaca oleracea polysaccharide (Bio-POP) conjugates were successfully prepared by the esterification reaction. The biotinylated polysaccharide products were an off-white powder with an average degree of substitution of 42.5%. After grafting biotin onto POP, the thermal stability of Bio-POP conjugates was much higher than that of POP and the surface topography of Bio-POP was a loose and porous cross-linked structure. The cytotoxicity assay in vitro demonstrated that POP, biotin, and Bio-POP conjugates exhibited different cytotoxicity to HeLa, MCF-7, LO-2, and A549, in particular POP inhibited the growth of the A549 cell line more than other cell lines. The nuclear staining method demonstrated that Bio-POP conjugates can interfere with the apoptosis of A549 cells to some extent and the immunofluorescence staining photograph illustrated that Bio-POP conjugates induced A549 cells to exhibit immune activity. Therefore, the combination of biotin and Portulaca oleracea polysaccharides had immune synergistic therapeutic effects on A549 cells and can be applied in the field of anti-tumor conjugate drugs.

Improvement of Gold Nanorods in Photothermal Therapy: Recent Progress and Perspective

Cancer is a life-threatening disease, and there is a significant need for novel technologies to treat cancer with an effective outcome and low toxicity. Photothermal therapy (PTT) is a noninvasive therapeutic tool that transports nanomaterials into tumors, absorbing light energy and converting it into heat, thus killing tumor cells. Gold nanorods (GNRs) have attracted widespread attention in recent years due to their unique optical and electronic properties and potential applications in biological imaging, molecular detection, and drug delivery, especially in the PTT of cancer and other diseases. This review summarizes the recent progress in the synthesis methods and surface functionalization of GNRs for PTT. The current major synthetic methods of GNRs and recently improved measures to reduce toxicity, increase yield, and control particle size and shape are first introduced, followed by various surface functionalization approaches to construct a controlled drug release system, increase cell uptake, and improve pharmacokinetics and tumor-targeting effect, thus enhancing the photothermal effect of killing the tumor. Finally, a brief outlook for the future development of GNRs modification and functionalization in PTT is proposed.

Black phosphorus nanosheets-based platform for targeted chemo-photothermal synergistic cancer therapy

As a new member of two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials, black phosphorus (BP) has been considered as efficient photothermal therapy (PTT) agents owing to its excellent photothermal efficiency and biodegradability. Herein, a multifunctional nanoplatform based on black phosphorus nanosheets (BP NSs) was developed for chemo-photothermal synergistic cancer therapy. The BP NSs were successfully prepared by a liquid exfoliation technique. Doxorubicin (DOX), as a model drug, was loaded into the cavity of poly (amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimer using thin film hydration method. Then, PAMAM@DOX was coated on the surface of BP NSs using an electrostatic adsorption method that combined bath sonication with magnetic stirring. Hyaluronic acid (HA) was also modified onto the BP NS-PAMAM@DOX through electrostatic adsorption. PAMAM and HA layer could effectively isolate BP NSs from water and air to improve physiological stability. BP NSs and BP NS-PAMAM@DOX-HA were characterized by particle size, zeta potential, morphology, UV-vis-NIR absorption spectra, stability, photothermal performance and photothermal stability. This nanosystem exhibited a good pH and near infrared (NIR) dual-responsive drug release property. In addition, the obtained BP NS-PAMAM@D OX-HA nanocomposites possessed excellent PTT efficiency both in vitro and in vivo. The in vitro cell experiments suggested that the targeted BP NS-PAMAM@DOX-HA presented greater cytotoxicity and higher cellular uptake efficiency. Tumor xenograft model was established in BALB/C mice. The therapeutic effect of BP NS-PAMAM@DOX-HA was further augmented under 808 nm laser irradiation, displaying superior antitumor effect in comparison with chemotherapy or PTT alone. Such a biodegradable BP NS-based platform provide new insights for the rational design of PTT-based combinational cancer therapy.

Agricultural and Biomedical Applications of Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials

Chitosan has emerged as a biodegradable, nontoxic polymer with multiple beneficial applications in the agricultural and biomedical sectors. As nanotechnology has evolved as a promising field, researchers have incorporated chitosan-based nanomaterials in a variety of products to enhance their efficacy and biocompatibility. Moreover, due to its inherent antimicrobial and chelating properties, and the availability of modifiable functional groups, chitosan nanoparticles were also directly used in a variety of applications. In this review, the use of chitosan-based nanomaterials in agricultural and biomedical fields related to the management of abiotic stress in plants, water availability for crops, controlling foodborne pathogens, and cancer photothermal therapy is discussed, with some insights into the possible mechanisms of action. Additionally, the toxicity arising from the accumulation of these nanomaterials in biological systems and future research avenues that had gained limited attention from the scientific community are discussed here. Overall, chitosan-based nanomaterials show promising characteristics for sustainable agricultural practices and effective healthcare in an eco-friendly manner.

Drug delivery systems based on CD44-targeted glycosaminoglycans for cancer therapy

The polysaccharide-based biomaterials hyaluronic acid (HA) and chondroitin sulfate (CS) have aroused great interest for use in drug delivery systems for tumor therapy, as they have outstanding biocompatibility and great targeting ability for cluster determinant 44 (CD44). In addition, modified HA and CS can self-assemble into micelles or micellar nanoparticles (NPs) for targeted drug delivery. This review discusses the formation of HA- and CS-based NPs, and various types of CS-based NPs including CS-drug conjugates, CS-polymer NPs, CS-small molecule NPs, polyelectrolyte nanocomplexes (PECs), CS-metal NPs, and nanogels. We then focus on the applications of HA- and CS-based NPs in tumor chemotherapy, gene therapy, photothermal therapy (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), sonodynamic therapy (SDT), and immunotherapy. Finally, this review is expected to provide guidelines for the development of various HA- and CS-based NPs used in multiple cancer therapies.

An On-Demand pH-Sensitive Nanocluster for Cancer Treatment by Combining Photothermal Therapy and Chemotherapy

Combination therapy is considered to be a promising strategy for improving the therapeutic efficiency of cancer treatment. In this study, an on-demand pH-sensitive nanocluster (NC) system was prepared by the encapsulation of gold nanorods (AuNR) and doxorubicin (DOX) by a pH-sensitive polymer, poly(aspartic acid-graft-imidazole)-PEG, to enhance the therapeutic effect of chemotherapy and photothermal therapy. At pH 6.5, the NC systems formed aggregated structures and released higher drug amounts while sustaining a stable nano-assembly, structured with less systemic toxicity at pH 7.4. The NC could also increase antitumor efficacy as a result of improved accumulation and release of DOX from the NC system at pHex and pHen with locally applied near-infrared light. Therefore, an NC system would be a potent strategy for on-demand combination treatment to target tumors with less systemic toxicity and an improved therapeutic effect.

High-Order Assembly toward Polysaccharide-Based Complex Coacervate Nanodroplets Capable of Targeting Cancer Cells

High-order assembly plays a significant role in the formation of living organisms containing a large number of biomacromolecules and, thus, enlightens the construction of nanomaterials that can load macromolecular payloads at a high efficiency. Herein, by choosing anionic hyaluronic acid (HA) as a model payload, we demonstrated how the electrostatic-interaction-induced high-order assembly can be used to load efficiently biomacromolecules into complex coacervate nanodroplets. The resultant assemblies were primarily composed of HA and cationic chitosan oligosaccharide/dextran (COS/Dex) nanogels and had a controllable structure while also exhibiting biological functionality. HA in the assemblies is capable of targeting CD44-overexpressed tumor cells through CD44-mediated endocytic pathways, which are elucidated herein. Therefore, this study provides a reliable approach for the efficient loading of macromolecular payloads into complex coacervate nanodroplets via electrostatic-attraction-induced high-order assembly.

Visualization photofragmentation-induced rhodamine B release from gold nanorod delivery system by combination two-photon luminescence imaging with correlation spectroscopy

Plasmon-enhanced gold nanorod (AuNR) with high photothermal conversion efficiency is a promising light-controllable nanodrug delivery system for cancer therapy. Understanding the mechanism for the light-controllable drug release of AuNR delivery systems is important for the development of nanomedicine. In this study, the rhodamine B (RB) released from AuNR-RB nanodelivery system was quantitated and visualized by using two-photon luminescence (TPL) imaging combined with correlation spectroscopy. The photofragmentation of AuNR induced by femtosecond pulsed laser was revealed by TPL correlation spectroscopy when the laser energy was above the thermal damage threshold of AuNR, and the RB released from this nanodrug delivery system was visualized by TPL imaging. Furthermore, the photofragmentation-induced release of RB from AuNR-RB nanodelivery system was visualized in living MCF-7 breast cancer cells by TPL imaging combined with correlation spectroscopy. These results provided a novel optical approach to quantify the release of drugs from gold nanocarriers in complex biological media.

Nanomaterials for Nanotheranostics: Tuning Their Properties According to Disease Needs

Nanotheranostics is one of the biggest scientific breakthroughs in nanomedicine. Most of the currently available diagnosis and therapies are invasive, time-consuming, and associated with severe toxic side effects. Nanotheranostics, on the other hand, has the potential to bridge this gap by harnessing the capabilities of nanotechnology and nanomaterials for combined therapeutics and diagnostics with markedly enhanced efficacy. However, nanomaterial applications in nanotheranostics are still in its infancy. This is due to the fact that each disease has a particular microenvironment with well-defined characteristics, which promotes deeper selection criteria of nanomaterials to meet the disease needs. In this review, we have outlined how nanomaterials are designed and tailored for nanotheranostics of cancer and other diseases such as neurodegenerative, autoimmune (particularly on rheumatoid arthritis), and cardiovascular diseases. The penetrability and retention of a nanomaterial in the biological system, the therapeutic strategy used, and the imaging mode selected are some of the aspects discussed for each disease. The specific properties of the nanomaterials in terms of feasibility, physicochemical challenges, progress in clinical trials, its toxicity, and their future application on translational medicine are addressed. Our review meticulously and critically examines the applications of nanotheranostics with various nanomaterials, including graphene, across several diseases, offering a broader perspective of this emerging field.

A glance over doxorubicin based-nanotherapeutics: From proof-of-concept studies to solutions in the market

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide and, as such, efforts are being done to find new chemotherapeutic drugs or, alternatively, novel approaches for the delivery of old ones. In this scope, when used as vehicles for drugs, nanomaterials may potentially maximize the efficacy of the treatment and reduce its side effects, for example by a change in drug's pharmacokinetics, cell targeting and/or specific stimuli-responsiveness. This is the case of doxorubicin (DOX) that presents a broad spectrum of activity and is one of the most widely used chemotherapeutic drugs as first-line treatment. Indeed, DOX is a very interesting example of a drug for which several nanosized delivery systems have been developed over the years. While it is true that some of these systems are already in the market, it is also true that research on this subject remains very active and that there is a continuing search for new solutions. In this sense, this review takes the example of doxorubicin, not so much with the focus on the drug itself, but rather as a case study around which very diverse and imaginative nanotechnology approaches have emerged.

Nanomedicine in treatment of breast cancer - A challenge to conventional therapy

Amongst the various types of cancer, breast cancer is a highly heterogeneous disease and known as the leading cause of death among women globally. The extensive interdisciplinary investigation in nanotechnology and cancer biomedical research has been evolved over the years for its effective treatment. However, the advent of chemotherapeutic resistance in breast cancer is one of the major confront researchers are facing in achieving successful chemotherapy. Research in the area of cancer nanotechnology over the years have now been revolutionized through the development of smart polymers, lipids, inorganic materials and eventually their surface-engineering with targeting ligands. Moreover, nanotechnology further extended and brings in the notice the new theranostic approach which combining the therapy and imaging simultaneously. Currently, research is being envisaged in the area of novel nano-pharmaceutical design viz. liposome, nanotubes, polymer lipid hybrid system, which focuses to make the chemotherapy curative and long-lasting. In this review, we aimed to discuss the recent advancement of different surface-engineered/targeted nanomedicines that improved the drug efficacy in breast cancer.

Targeted Delivery of a Ligand-Drug Conjugate via Formyl Peptide Receptor 1 through Cholesterol-Dependent Endocytosis

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) undergo ligand-induced internalization that carries the cognate ligands into intracellular compartments. The present study explores this property for the use of formyl peptide receptor 1 (FPR1), a class A GPCR that binds formylated peptides, as a potential target for drug delivery. A pH-sensitive peptide-drug conjugate consisting of doxorubicin (DOX), N-ε-maleimidocaproic acid hydrazide (EMCH), and the formyl peptide fMet-Leu-Phe-Cys (abbreviated as DEF) was prepared. DEF retained pharmacological activities of formyl peptides in binding to FPR1 and mobilization of Ca²⁺ from intracellular stores. However, the conjugated DOX was no longer cell membrane-permeable and relied on FPR1 for cellular entry. DOX was released from DEF into acidic compartments labeled with fluorescent trackers for endosomes. Treatment of cells with pharmacological inhibitors that block clathrin- or caveolae-mediated endocytosis did not abrogate FPR1-dependent DEF internalization, nor did inhibition of macropinocytosis and phagocytosis. In contrast, cholesterol depletion abrogated DEF internalization through FPR1, suggesting characteristics of cholesterol-dependent uptake mediated by a cell surface receptor. These results demonstrate the possibility of using FPR1 for targeted drug delivery.

Multifunctional PEG-b-polypeptide-decorated gold nanorod for targeted combined chemo-photothermal therapy of breast cancer

The combination of chemotherapy and photothermal therapy is acknowledged as one of the most promising approaches in cancer treatment. Targeted delivery and controlled drug release are two important factors for combined chemo-photothermal therapy. In this study, a multifunctional nanoplatform based on gold nanorod (GNR) decorated with folate-conjugated poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(L-γ-glutamylhydrazine) (FEGGH) containing disulfide linker and dihydroxyphenyl groups was developed for targeted combined chemo-photothermal therapy of breast cancer. FEGGH was synthesized by ring-opening polymerization of γ-benzyl-l-glutamate-N-carboxyanhydride using folate/cystamine-heterobifunctionalized poly(ethylene glycol) as an initiator, following by hydrazinolysis and carbodiimide reactions. FEGGH was decorated onto GNR through Au-catechol bonds. Chemotherapeutic drug doxorubicin (DOX) was loaded onto the nanoplatform through pH-sensitive hydrazone linkage, obtaining final product FEGGH^DOX-GNR. The DOX-loaded nanoplatform displayed excellent photostability and reduction/pH dual-responsive drug release behavior. Cytological studies demonstrated the effective internalization of FEGGH^DOX-GNR into MCF-7 cells via folate-mediated endocytosis and additive therapeutic effect of combined photothermal-chemotherapy. These results indicate that our nanoplatform may be a promising strategy for targeted combined chemo-photothermal therapy of breast cancer.