Development and application of nanofibrillated cellulose coating for shelf life extension of fresh-cut vegetable during postharvest storage

Optimized hybrid edible surface coating prepared with gelatin and cellulose nanofiber for cherry tomato preservation

The use of renewable bioresources and their nanoforms in developing edible coating materials is considered a promising approach for preserving food freshness. Herein, cellulose nanofibers (CNF) with different morphologies were combined with gelatin to prepare composite preservation film following by brushing over the surface of cherry tomatoes as an edible coating. The gelatin-based composite film containing 0.3 % CNF20 (GC2-0.3) exhibited the lowest water vapor permeability (WVP, 1.97 × 10-4 barrer), lower oxygen permeability (OP, 2.54 × 10-2 barrer), higher transparency (Tr = 85.28 %) and excellent mechanical properties (σ = 47.45 MPa, E = 1.84 GPa). When coated on cherry tomatoes, it maintained good luster and freshness, significantly reducing the water loss of cherry tomatoes. The weight loss was only 16 % after 14 days of storage at 25 °C and 30 % humidity, compared to >30 % for the uncoated cherry tomatoes. This work provides a viable strategy for developing sustainable, green fresh-keeping materials that can prolong the storage time of the putrescible food.

Emerging nanocellulose from agricultural waste: Recent advances in preparation and applications in biobased food packaging

With the increasing emphasis on sustainability and eco-friendliness, a novel biodegradable packaging materials has received unprecedented attention. Nanocellulose, owing to its high crystallinity, degradability, minimal toxicity, and outstanding biocompatibility, has gained considerable interest in the field of sustainable packaging. This review provided a comprehensive perspective about the recent advances and future development of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and cellulose nanofibers (CNFs). We first introduced the utilization of agricultural waste for nanocellulose production, such as straw, bagasse, fruit byproducts, and shells. Next, we discussed the preparation process of nanocellulose from various agricultural wastes and expounded the advantages and shortcomings of different methods. Subsequently, this review offered an in-depth investigation on the application of nanocellulose in food packaging, especially the function and packaged form of nanocellulose on food preservation. Finally, the safety evaluation of nanocellulose in food packaging is conducted to enlighten and promote the perfection of relevant regulatory documents. In short, this review provided valuable insights for potential research on the biobased materials utilized in future food packaging.

A review on natural cellulose fiber applications: Empowering industry with sustainable solutions

Cellulose fiber, a prevalent natural biopolymer, offers numerous benefits including renewability and biodegradability. It presents a cost-effective, chemical-free alternative for various applications such as textiles, packaging, food preservation, wastewater treatment, medicine, and cosmetics. Recent research has focused on cellulose's potential in advanced polymeric materials, highlighting its versatility and sustainability. This review examines cellulose fibers' synthesis, structure, and properties, as well as their industrial applications in sectors like automotive, packaging, textiles, construction, and biomedical engineering. It also addresses challenges in large-scale production, processing, and sustainability, providing insights for optimizing cellulose fiber use. The review serves as a comprehensive guide for leveraging cellulose fiber's potential in industrial applications.

An insect lac blanket-mimetic and degradable shellac hydrogel/chitosan packaging film with controllable gas permeation for fresh-cut vegetables preservation

Fresh-cut products are extremely perishable due to the processing operations, and the atmosphere environment, especially CO2, O2 and H2O, could profoundly affect their shelf life. Herein, an insect "lac blanket"-mimetic and facile strategy was proposed for fresh-cut vegetables preservation, employing porous shellac hydrogel microparticles as gas "switches" in chitosan film to regulate CO2, O2 and H2O vapor permeability. Thus, the shellac hydrogel/chitosan hybrid film presented the controllable and wide range of gas permeability, compared with the chitosan film. The shellac-COOH nanoscale vesicles aggregated to form shellac hydrogel network via hydrophobic binding. The shellac hydrogel microparticles played a certain lubricating effect on the hybrid film casting solution. The hydrogen bond network between shellac hydrogel and chitosan contributed to the excellent mechanical properties of the hybrid film. The hybrid film also exhibited remarkable water-resistant, antifogging properties, optical transparency and degradability. The hybrid packaging films prepared through this strategy could adjust the internal gas (CO2, O2, H2O and ethylene) contents within the packages, and further exhibited admirable preservation performance on three fresh-cut vegetables with different respiratory metabolisms. This gas permeation-controlled strategy has great potential in fresh food preservation and various other applications that need a modified atmosphere.

Citric acid crosslinked carboxymethyl cellulose edible films: A case study on preserving freshness in bananas

The study involves the preparation and characterization of crosslinked-carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) films using varying amounts of citric acid (CA) within the range 5 %-20 %, w/w, relative to the dry weight of CMC. Through techniques such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, carbonyl content analysis, and gel fraction measurements, the successful crosslinking between CMC and CA is confirmed. The investigation includes an analysis of chemical structure, physical and optical characteristics, swelling behavior, water vapor transmission rate, moisture content, and surface morphologies. The water resistance of the cross-linked CMC films exhibited a significant improvement when compared to the non-crosslinked CMC film. The findings indicated that films crosslinked with 10 % CA demonstrated favorable properties for application as edible coatings. These transparent films, ideal for packaging, prove effective in preserving the quality and sensory attributes of fresh bananas, including color retention, minimized weight loss, slowed ripening through inhibiting amyloplast degradation, and enhanced firmness during storage.

Nanocellulose Composite Films in Food Packaging Materials: A Review

Owing to the environmental pollution caused by petroleum-based packaging materials, there is an imminent need to develop novel food packaging materials. Nanocellulose, which is a one-dimensional structure, has excellent physical and chemical properties, such as renewability, degradability, sound mechanical properties, and good biocompatibility, indicating promising applications in modern industry, particularly in food packaging. This article introduces nanocellulose, followed by its extraction methods and the preparation of relevant composite films. Meanwhile, the performances of nanocellulose composite films in improving the mechanical, barrier (oxygen, water vapor, ultraviolet) and thermal properties of food packaging materials and the development of biodegradable or edible packaging materials in the food industry are elaborated. In addition, the excellent performances of nanocellulose composites for the packaging and preservation of various food categories are outlined. This study provides a theoretical framework for the development and utilization of nanocellulose composite films in the food packaging industry.

Development of chitin nanofiber coatings for prolonging shelf life and inhibiting bacterial growth on fresh cucumbers

The widespread usage of petroleum-based polymers as single-use packaging has had harmful effects on the environment. Herein, we developed sustainable chitin nanofiber (ChNF) coatings that prolong the shelf life of fresh cucumbers and delay the growth of pathogenic bacteria on their surfaces. ChNFs with varying degrees of acetylation were successfully prepared via deacetylation using NaOH with treatment times of 0-480 min and defibrillated using mechanical blending. With longer deacetylation reaction times, more acetamido groups (-NHCOCH3) in chitin molecules were converted to amino groups (-NH2), which imparted antibacterial properties to the ChNFs. The ChNF morphologies were affected by deacetylation reaction time. ChNFs deacetylated for 240 min had an average width of 9.0 nm and lengths of up to several μm, whereas rod-like structured ChNFs with a mean width of 7.3 nm and an average length of 222.3 nm were obtained with the reaction time of 480 min. Furthermore, we demonstrated a standalone ChNF coating to extend the shelf life of cucumbers. In comparison to the rod-like structured ChNFs, the 120 and 240-min deacetylated ChNFs exhibited a fibril-like structure, which considerably retarded the moisture loss of cucumbers and the growth rate of bacteria on their outer surfaces during storage. Cucumbers coated with these 120 and 240-min deacetylated ChNFs demonstrated a lower weight loss rate of ⁓ 3.9% day-1 compared to the uncoated cucumbers, which exhibited a weight loss rate of 4.6% day-1. This protective effect provided by these renewable ChNFs holds promising potential to reduce food waste and the use of petroleum-based packaging materials.

Effects of cellulose nanofibrils treatment on antioxidant properties and aroma of fresh-cut apples

Horticultural products tend to deteriorate during postharvest storage and processing. In this study, cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) were prepared from wood to investigate the effects of CNF treatment on the storage quality, aroma composition, and antioxidant system of fresh-cut apple (Malus domestica) wedges. Compared with control treatment, CNF coating treatment significantly improved the appearance of apple wedges; reduced the decay rate of apple wedges; and delayed the decline in weight loss, firmness, and titratable acid during storage. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry showed that CNF treatment could maintain the aroma components of apple wedges (stored for 4 days). Further investigations showed that CNF treatment increased the antioxidant system level and decreased reactive oxygen species content and membrane lipid peroxidation level of apple wedges. Overall, this study showed that CNF coating could effectively maintain the quality of fresh-cut apples during cold storage.

Recent Advances in Cellulose-Based Hydrogels: Food Applications

In the past couple of years, cellulose has attracted a significant amount of attention and research interest due to the fact that it is the most abundant and renewable source of hydrogels. With increasing environmental issues and an emerging demand, researchers around the world are focusing on naturally produced hydrogels in particular due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and abundance. Hydrogels are three-dimensional (3D) networks created by chemically or physically crosslinking linear (or branching) hydrophilic polymer molecules. Hydrogels have a high capacity to absorb water and biological fluids. Although hydrogels have been widely used in food applications, the majority of them are not biodegradable. Because of their functional characteristics, cellulose-based hydrogels (CBHs) are currently utilized as an important factor for different aspects in the food industry. Cellulose-based hydrogels have been extensively studied in the fields of food packaging, functional food, food safety, and drug delivery due to their structural interchangeability and stimuli-responsive properties. This article addresses the sources of CBHs, types of cellulose, and preparation methods of the hydrogel as well as the most recent developments and uses of cellulose-based hydrogels in the food processing sector. In addition, information regarding the improvement of edible and functional CBHs was discussed, along with potential research opportunities and possibilities. Finally, CBHs could be effectively used in the industry of food processing for the aforementioned reasons.

Synergistic cellulose-based nanocomposite packaging and cold plasma decontamination for extended saffron preservation

Sterilization of saffron packaging and maintaining the quality of saffron content are the main priorities in saffron preservation. Common modalities do not offer lasting saffron preservation and it is urgent to develop novel packaging approaches from renewable resources and prevent packaging waste. Here, simultaneous decontamination and quality maintenance of saffron is demonstrated, for the first time, through the synergistic application of nano-clay-loaded carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) nanocomposites (CNCs) and cold plasmas (CP). Compared to the separate uses of CP and CMC/PVA/nano clay, our results confirm the synergies between CP and CMC/PVA/nano clay cause complete inactivation of Escherichia coli bacteria, while not significantly affecting the concentrations of the essential saffron components (safranal, crocin, and picrocrocin). Overall, the CP-treated CMC/PVA/nano clay fosters saffron preservation, through contamination removal and quality maintenance of the food product. The synergistic application of CP and CMC/PVA/nano clay thus represents a promising strategy for packaging, sterilization, and preservation of high-value food products.

Development of soy-based nanocomposite film: Modeling for barrier and mechanical properties and its application as cheese slice separator

In the current study, soybean aqueous extract (SAE)-based nanocomposite film was developed by incorporating cellulose nanofiber (CNF) at various concentrations (0-10%). Effect of nanoreinforcement on essential properties of the nanocomposite film such as barrier, mechanical, water affinity, and optical properties were evaluated. Homogeneous films with improved barrier and mechanical properties were observed until 6% CNF, beyond which considerable reduction in desirable properties was noticed due to nanoparticle's agglomeration effect. Furthermore, the prediction of the mechanical and barrier properties of nanocomposite film was performed with mathematical models such as modified Halpin-Tsai and modified Nielsen equations, respectively. The model-fitting results reveal that the theoretically predicted values were in close agreement with the experimental values. Hence, these models were well suited for predicting respective properties. Model prediction also implies that the increase in the aspect ratio of fillers can considerably cause a reduction in water vapor permeability and improvement in mechanical properties. Suitability of developed film as cheese slice separator was evaluated: they had equivalent outcomes in terms of easiness in slice separation and wholeness of slices after separation compared to the commercial material.

Cellulose Nanofibers Extracted From Natural Wood Improve the Postharvest Appearance Quality of Apples

To prolong the shelf life of perishable food with a simple and environmentally friendly postharvest preservation technology is one of the global concerns. This study aimed to explore the application value of biological macromolecule natural cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) in extending the postharvest fruit shelf life. In this study, 0.5% (wt%) CNFs were prepared from natural wood and coated on the surface of early-ripening apple fruits. After 10 days of storage at room temperature, the results revealed that the shelf life of apple fruits with CNF coating was significantly prolonged, and the fruit appearance quality improved. The invisible network structure of CNFs in the fruit epidermis was observed under an atomic force microscope (AFM). The gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis showed that CNFs significantly promoted the formation of epidermal wax, especially fatty alcohols, during storage. In addition, the CNFs remarkably promoted the upregulation of genes related to the synthesis of cuticular wax of apple. In conclusion, this study provides an environmentally sustainable nanomaterial for post-harvest preservation of horticultural products, and also provides a new insight into the effect of CNFs on postharvest storage of apple fruits.

Preparation and applications of chitosan and cellulose composite materials

Chitosan is a natural fiber, chemically cellulose-like biopolymer, which is processed from chitin. Its use as a natural polymer is getting more attention because it is non-toxic, renewable, and biocompatible. However, its poor mechanical and thermal strength, particle size, and surface area restrict its industrial use. Consequently, to improve these properties, cellulose and/or inorganic nanoparticles have been used. This review discusses the recent progress of chitosan and cellulose composite materials, their preparation, and their applications in different industrial sectors. It also discusses the modification of chitosan and cellulose composite materials to allow their use on a large scale. Finally, the recent development of chitosan composite materials for drug delivery, food packaging, protective coatings, and wastewater treatment are discussed. The challenges and perspectives for future research are also considered. This review suggests that chitosan and cellulose nano-composite are promising, low-cost products for environmental remediation involving a simple production process.

Quality of Physalis peruviana fruits coated with pectin and pectin reinforced with nanocellulose from P. peruviana calyces

Physalis peruviana is marketed without its calyx, which generates byproducts and a decrease in the shelf life of these fruits. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of edible pectin-coatings reinforced with nanocellulose from calyx on the physical-chemical and physiological parameters of P. peruviana fruits during refrigerated storage (5 °C) for ten days. The nanocellulose extraction was carried out using a combined extraction method (chemical procedures and ultrasound radiation). The characterization of the fibers showed that the maximum degradation temperatures ranged between 300 and 311 °C. The SEM analysis revealed the presence of fibers after the chemical treatment. The removal of lignin and hemicellulose was validated using Fourier Transform Infra Red (FTIR) spectroscopy. The results showed that the fruits treated with pectin and pectin reinforced with nanocellulose at 0.5 % (w/w) had an adequate visual appearance and showed a minor color change (ΔE of 19.04 and 21.04, respectively) and the highest retention of L∗ during storage. Although the addition of nanocellulose at 0.5% presented the lowest respiratory rate (29.60 mgCO₂/kg h), the treatment with pectin offered the least weight loss and showed the highest firmness retention at the end of storage. Thus, the edible pectin-coating may be useful for improving the postharvest quality and storage life of fresh P. peruviana fruit. Nanocellulose from P. peruviana calyces can be used under the concept of a circular economy; although, its use as a reinforcement of pectin showed some limitations.

Influence of cellulose nanocrystals gellan gum-based coating on color and respiration rate of Agaricus bisporus mushrooms

The edible coating has been used for covering fruits and vegetables, bringing surface protection, and extending product shelf-life. Due to the outstanding properties, nanomaterials have become a part of the packaging/coating new generation, demonstrating improvements in the barrier capacity of materials starting from construction products to the food industry. In the food industry, on the other hand, Agaricus bisporus mushrooms have a limited shelf-life from 1 to 3 days because of their high respiration rate and enzymatic browning. With the aim to reduce these two parameters and prevent rapid senescence, the objective of this study was to incorporate a natural source of nanomaterials (cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) into a gellan gum-based coating and sprayed the surface of the mushrooms with the coating material. To evaluate the effect of CNCs, oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production rate, and color change were recorded during the mushroom storage at 4 ± 1 °C. Results showed that all coatings were able to decrease total color change (ΔE) of mushrooms from 12 to 8 at day 10 when the coating was applied in all samples compared to control. In addition, significant differences were observed in the respiration rate when CNCs were added to the mushrooms. Oxygen consumption results exhibited a 44 mL O2 /kg · day production at day 5 with 20% CNCs compared to 269 mL O2 /kg · day observed in noncoated samples. This trend was similarly observed in the carbon dioxide production rate. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: With this research, it was remarkable to see the presence of CNCs in the coating solution reduced the respiration rate and increased the shelf-life of mushrooms. Similar applications can be industrially scaled-up to protect fruits and vegetables by CNCs-based coating or packaging materials. A variety of sustainable materials are available nowadays that serve as packaging matrix, and scientists are working on expanding the compatibility of these nanomaterials. In addition, it has been studied that CNCs enhance the degradation of polymers, an effort that many companies are making to reduce the environmental impact in their products.

Edible Coating and Pulsed Light to Increase the Shelf Life of Food Products

The application of edible coatings (EC) in combination with pulsed light (PL) treatments represents an emerging approach for extending the shelf life of highly perishable but high value-added products, such as fresh-cut fruits and vegetables. The surface of these products would benefit from the protective effects of ECs and the PL decontamination capability. This review describes in detail the fundamentals of both EC and PL, focusing on the food engineering principles in the formulation and application of EC and the delivery of efficient PL treatments and the technological aspects related to the food characterization following these treatments and discussing the implementation of the two technologies, individually or in combination. The advantages of the combination of EC and PL are extensively discussed emphasizing the potential benefits that may be derived from their combination when preserving perishable foods. The downsides of combining EC and PL are also presented, with specific reference to the potential EC degradation when exposed to PL treatments and the screening effect of PL transmittance through the coating layer. Finally, the potential applications of the combined treatments to food products are highlighted, comparatively presenting the treatment conditions and the product shelf-life improvement.

Physical, chemical, and toxicological characterization of fibrillated forms of cellulose using an in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and co-culture model

Fibrillated cellulose is a next-generation material in development for a variety of applications, including use in food and food-contact materials. An alternative testing strategy including simulated digestion was developed to compare the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of seven different types of fibrillated cellulose, following European Food Safety Authority guidance. Fibrillated forms were compared to a conventional form of cellulose which has been used in food for over 85 years and has Generally Recognized as safe regulatory status in the USA. The physical and chemical characterization of fibrillated celluloses demonstrate that these materials are similar physically and chemically, which composed of the same fundamental molecular structure and exhibit similar morphology, size, size distribution, surface charge, and low levels of impurities. Simulated gastrointestinal and lysosomal digestions demonstrate that these physical and chemical similarities remain following exposure to conditions that mimic the gastrointestinal tract or intracellular lysosomes. A toxicological investigation with an advanced intestinal co-culture model found that exposure to each of the fibrillated and conventional forms of cellulose, in either the pristine or digested form at 0.4% by weight, showed no adverse toxicological effects including cytotoxicity, barrier integrity, oxidative stress, or inflammation. The results demonstrate the physical, chemical, and biological similarities of these materials and provide substantive evidence to support their grouping and ability to read-across data as part of a food safety demonstration.

Biopolymer Coatings as Alternative to Modified Atmosphere Packaging for Shelf Life Extension of Minimally Processed Apples

The effect of caseinate/chitosan blend on the shelf life of minimally processed apples was studied. In the first phase of the work, the effect of the biopolymer coating on the respiration rate of the minimally processed apples was studied as function of gas composition (5%, 10%, 21% of O2 with N2 as balance at 5 °C) and temperature (5 °C, 10 °C at 5% of O2 with N2 as balance). In the second phase, the shelf life of the packed product was studied during storage at 5 °C. The gas composition (O2%-CO2%) in the package headspace, relative humidity, pH, hardness, color and antioxidant capacity of the product were monitored after 0, 1, 4, 7, 11, and 14 days. The coating effectively reduced respiration rate of the product when oxygen was over 10%. In the presence of the coating, the reduction of oxygen did not affect the respiration rate. At 5% of O2, the respiration rate decreased by 50% by changing the temperature from 10 °C to 5 °C. Shelf life study showed that the chitosan—caseinate coating was able to preserve the mechanical properties and the antioxidant capacity of the product during storage by increasing the shelf life by 7 days to 11 days at 5 °C.