Functionalization of developed bacterial cellulose with magnetite nanoparticles for nanobiotechnology and nanomedicine applications

New fluorescent Schiff base modified nanocellulose-based chemosensors for the selective detection of Fe3+, Zn2+ and Cu2+ in semi-aqueous media and application in seawater sample

Stimulus-responsive fluorescent-modified biopolymers have received significant attention in the field of chemosensors. Herein, four new fluorescent dyes, namely, S1: (PDA-DANC), S2: (SAL-PDA-DANC), S3: (BrSAL-PDA-DANC) and S4: (ClSAL-PDA-DANC) have been successfully synthesized from 2,3-dialdehyde nanocellulose (DANC) for the detection of heavy metals. The microstructural and photophysical properties of nanocellulose (NC), microcrystalline cellulose (DANC) and the synthesized S1 to S4 dyes were investigated by FT-IR, SEM-EDX, XRD, TGA, DLS and photoluminescence. NC, obtained from conversion of MCC, shows an average size of 802.4 nm with 0.141 of polydispersity index (PdI), and a crystalline index (CI) of 82.40 % and crystallite size of 4.68 nm. The synthesized dyes present good fluorescent properties and have been therefore exploited for developing new probes for heavy metal ions detection. Remarkable "turn off" and/or "turn on" behaviors with Fe3+ and Cu2+ and with Zn2+ in DMF/water solution have been demonstrated, allowing the sensitive and selective determination of these heavy metal ions with a low limit of detection (LOD). Finally, the evaluation of the Fe3+ sensing in a real seawater sample was investigated.

Dialdehyde carbohydrates - Advanced functional materials for biomedical applications

Dialdehyde carbohydrates (DCs) have found applications in a wide range of biomedical field due to their great versatility, biocompatibility/biodegradability, biological properties, and controllable chemical/physical characteristics. The presence of dialdehyde groups in carbohydrate structure allows cross-linking of DCs to form versatile architectures serving as interesting matrices for biomedical applications (e.g., drug delivery, tissue engineering, and regenerative medicine). Recently, DCs have noticeably contributed to the development of diverse physical forms of advanced functional biomaterials i.e., bulk architectures (hydrogels, films/coatings, or scaffolds) and nano/-micro formulations. We underline here the current scientific knowledge on DCs, and demonstrate their potential and newly developed biomedical applications. Specifically, an update on the synthesis approach and functional/bioactive attributes is provided, and the selected in vitro/in vivo studies are reviewed comprehensively as examples of the latest progress in the field. Moreover, safety concerns, challenges, and perspectives towards the application of DCs are deliberated.

Current advances of nanocellulose application in biomedical field

Nanocellulose (NC) is a natural fiber that can be extracted in fibrils or crystals form from different natural sources, including plants, bacteria, and algae. In recent years, nanocellulose has emerged as a sustainable biomaterial for various medicinal applications including drug delivery systems, wound healing, tissue engineering, and antimicrobial treatment due to its biocompatibility, low cytotoxicity, and exceptional water holding capacity for cell immobilization. Many antimicrobial products can be produced due to the chemical functionality of nanocellulose, such disposable antibacterial smart masks for healthcare use. This article discusses comprehensively three types of nanocellulose: cellulose nanocrystals (CNC), cellulose nanofibrils (CNF), and bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) in view of their structural and functional properties, extraction methods, and the distinctive biomedical applications based on the recently published work. On top of that, the biosafety profile and the future perspectives of nanocellulose-based biomaterials have been further discussed in this review.

Synthesis of Iron Oxides and Influence on Final Sizes and Distribution in Bacterial Cellulose Applications

Iron oxide nanoparticles have been investigated due to their suitable characteristics for diverse applications in the fields of biomedicine, electronics, water or wastewater treatment and sensors. Maghemite, magnetite and hematite are the most widely studied iron oxide particles and have ferrimagnetic characteristics. When very small, however, these particles have superparamagnetic properties and are called superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs). Several methods are used for the production of these particles, such as coprecipitation, thermal decomposition and microemulsion. However, the variables of the different types of synthesis must be assessed to achieve greater control over the particles produced. In some studies, it is possible to compare the influence of variations in the factors for production with each of these methods. Thus, researchers use different adaptations of synthesis based on each objective and type of application. With coprecipitation, it is possible to obtain smaller, more uniform particles with adjustments in temperature, pH and the types of reagents used in the process. With thermal decomposition, greater control is needed over the time, temperature and proportion of surfactants and organic and aqueous phases in order to produce smaller particles and a narrower size distribution. With the microemulsion process, the control of the confinement of the micelles formed during synthesis through the proportions of surfactant and oil makes the final particles smaller and less dispersed. These nanoparticles can be used as additives for the creation of new materials, such as magnetic bacterial cellulose, which has different innovative applications. Composites that have SPIONs, which are produced with greater rigour with regards to their size and distribution, have superparamagnetic properties and can be used in medical applications, whereas materials containing larger particles have ferromagnetic applications. To arrive at a particular particle with specific characteristics, researchers must be attentive to both the mechanism selected and the production variables to ensure greater quality and control of the materials produced.

Bacterial cellulose-based composites as vehicles for dermal and transdermal drug delivery: A review

In recent years, a significant amount of drugs have been taken orally, which are not as effective as desired. To solve this problem, bacterial cellulose-based dermal/transdermal drug delivery systems (BC-DDSs) with unique properties such as cell compatibility, hemocompatibility, tunable mechanical properties, and the ability to encapsulate various therapeutic agents with the controlled release have been introduced. A BC-dermal/transdermal DDS reduces first-pass metabolism and systematic side effects while improving patient compliance and dosage effectiveness by controlling drug release through the skin. The barrier function of the skin, especially the stratum corneum, can interfere with drug delivery. Few drugs can pass through the skin to reach effective concentrations in the blood to treat diseases. Due to their unique physicochemical properties and high potential to reduce immunogenicity and improve bioavailability, BC-dermal/transdermal DDSs are widely used to deliver various types of drugs for disease treatment. In this review, we describe the different types of BC-dermal/ transdermal DDSs, along with a critical discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of these systems. After the general presentation, the review is focused on recent advances in the preparation and applications of BC-based dermal/transdermal DDSs in various types of disease treatment.

An Eco-Friendly Adsorbent Based on Bacterial Cellulose and Vermiculite Composite for Efficient Removal of Methylene Blue and Sulfanilamide

In this work, a novel composite of bacterial cellulose (BC) and expanded vermiculite (EVMT) composite was used to adsorb dyes and antibiotics. The pure BC and BC/EVMT composite were characterized using SEM, FTIR, XRD, XPS and TGA. The BC/EVMT composite exhibited a microporous structure, providing abundant adsorption sites for target pollutants. The adsorption performance of the BC/EVMT composite was investigated for the removal of methylene blue (MB) and sulfanilamide (SA) from an aqueous solution. The adsorption capacity of BC/ENVMT for MB increased with increasing pH, while the adsorption capacity for SA decreased with increasing pH. The equilibrium data were analyzed using the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. As a result, the adsorption of MB and SA by the BC/EVMT composite was found to follow the Langmuir isotherm well, indicating a monolayer adsorption process on a homogeneous surface. The maximum adsorption capacity of the BC/EVMT composite was found to be 92.16 mg/g for MB and 71.53 mg/g for SA, respectively. The adsorption kinetics of both MB and SA on the BC/EVMT composite showed significant characteristics of a pseudo-second-order model. Considering the low cost and high efficiency of BC/EVMT, it is expected to be a promising adsorbent for the removal of dyes and antibiotics from wastewater. Thus, it can serve as a valuable tool in sewage treatment to improve water quality and reduce environmental pollution.

Highly functional nanocellulose-reinforced thermoplastic starch-based nanocomposites

Starch/nanocellulose nanocomposite is of interest because of its potential applications in the field of biodegradable food packaging and biomedical applications thanks to its safe, biodegradable, fabricated by simple traditional methods, and cheap. The starch reinforced by nanocellulose significantly improved the physicochemical properties, especially the mechanical properties, thermal stability as well as barrier properties, compared to the starch matrix. With outstanding advantages compared to polymer nanocomposites derived from petroleum, the starch/nanocellulose composite is considered a potential agent for biodegradable food packaging and biomedical technology.

Magnetic Bacterial Cellulose Biopolymers: Production and Potential Applications in the Electronics Sector

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a biopolymer that has been widely investigated due to its useful characteristics, such as nanometric structure, simple production and biocompatibility, enabling the creation of novel materials made from additive BC in situ and/or ex situ. The literature also describes the magnetization of BC biopolymers by the addition of particles such as magnetite and ferrites. The processing of BC with these materials can be performed in different ways to adapt to the availability of materials and the objectives of a given application. There is considerable interest in the electronics field for novel materials and devices as well as non-polluting, sustainable solutions. This sector influences the development of others, including the production and optimization of new equipment, medical devices, sensors, transformers and motors. Thus, magnetic BC has considerable potential in applied research, such as the production of materials for biotechnological electronic devices. Magnetic BC also enables a reduction in the use of polluting materials commonly found in electronic devices. This review article highlights the production of this biomaterial and its applications in the field of electronics.

Bacterial Cellulose-Based Blends and Composites: Versatile Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering Applications

Cellulose of bacterial origin, known as bacterial cellulose (BC), is one of the most versatile biomaterials that has a huge potential in tissue engineering due to its favourable mechanical properties, high hydrophilicity, crystallinity, and purity. Additional properties such as porous nano-fibrillar 3D structure and a high degree of polymerisation of BC mimic the properties of the native extracellular matrix (ECM), making it an excellent material for the fabrication of composite scaffolds suitable for cell growth and tissue development. Recently, the fabrication of BC-based scaffolds, including composites and blends with nanomaterials, and other biocompatible polymers has received particular attention owing to their desirable properties for tissue engineering. These have proven to be promising advanced materials in hard and soft tissue engineering. This review presents the latest state-of-the-art modified/functionalised BC-based composites and blends as advanced materials in tissue engineering. Their applicability as an ideal biomaterial in targeted tissue repair including bone, cartilage, vascular, skin, nerve, and cardiac tissue has been discussed. Additionally, this review briefly summarises the latest updates on the production strategies and characterisation of BC and its composites and blends. Finally, the challenges in the future development and the direction of future research are also discussed.

Decorated Au NPs on lignin coated magnetic nanoparticles: Investigation of its catalytic application in the reduction of aromatic nitro compounds and its performance against human lung cancer

In the recent years, bio-functionalized noble metal doped advanced magnetics nanocomposite materials has been materialized as potential featured catalysts in diverse applications. In this connection, we report herein a novel biogenic lignin driven Au nanoparticle supported Fe₃O₄ composite material. The procedure is free from any harsh reducing or stabilizing agent. Morphology and structural features were assessed following different physicochemical methodologies like FT-IR, FE-SEM, TEM, EDS, XRD, VSM and ICP-OES techniques. Thereafter, the [Fe₃O₄/Lignin/Au] material was successfully employed in the efficient reduction of different nitroarenes in aqueous medium. The process was monitored over UV-Vis spectroscopic study. Excellent yields were achieved with a range of diverse functionalized nitroarenes within 10-45 min of reaction. The nanocatalyst was recycled 10 times without any significant loss of catalytic activity. Distinctiveness of the material's activity was validated by comparing the results in the reduction of 4-nitrophenol. Furthermore, the prepared [Fe₃O₄/Lignin/Au] nanocomposite system exhibited outstanding antioxidant and anticancer effects against five lung cancer cell lines, such as, BICR 3, BICR 78, CALU 1, ChaGo-K-1, and A549. Cytotoxicity assay was determined in terms of % cell viability following MTT protocol. The corresponding IC₅₀ values were obtained as 47, 31, 19, 25, and 31 μg/mL respectively.

Fabrication strategies and biomedical applications of three-dimensional bacterial cellulose-based scaffolds: A review

Bacterial cellulose (BC), an extracellular polysaccharide, is a versatile biopolymer due to its intrinsic physicochemical properties, broad-spectrum applications, and remarkable achievements in different fields, especially in the biomedical field. Presently, the focus of BC-related research is on the development of scaffolds containing other materials for in-vitro and in-vivo biomedical applications. To this end, prime research objectives concern the biocompatibility of BC and the development of three-dimensional (3D) BC-based scaffolds. This review summarizes the techniques used to develop 3D BC scaffolds and discusses their potential merits and limitations. In addition, we discuss the various biomedical applications of BC-based scaffolds for which the 3D BC matrix confers desired structural and conformational features. Overall, this review provides comprehensive coverage of the idea, requirements, synthetic strategies, and current and prospective applications of 3D BC scaffolds, and thus, should be useful for researchers working with polysaccharides, biopolymers, or composite materials.

One-step purification of a recombinant beta-galactosidase using magnetic cellulose as a support: Rapid immobilization and high thermal stability

For the first time, this work reported the one-step purification and targeted immobilization process of a β-galactosidase (Gal) with the Cellulose Binding Domain (CBD) tag, by binding it to different magnetic cellulose supports. The process efficiency after β-galactosidase-CBD immobilization on magnetic cellulose-based supports showed values of approximately 90% for all evaluated enzymatic loads. Compared with free Gal, derivatives showed affinity values between β-galactosidase and the substrate 1.2 × higher in the lactose hydrolysis of milk. β-Galactosidase-CBD's oriented immobilization process on supports increased the thermal stability of the immobilized enzyme by up to 7 × . After 15 cycles of reuse, both enzyme preparations showed a relative hydrolysis percentage of 50% of lactose in milk. The oriented immobilization process developed for purifying recombinant proteins containing the CBD tag enabled the execution of both steps simultaneously and quickly and the obtention of β-galactosidases with promising catalytic characteristics for application in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Bacterial cellulose-based composites for biomedical and cosmetic applications: Research progress and existing products

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a promising unique material for various biomedical and cosmetic applications due to its morphology, mechanical strength, high purity, high water uptake, non-toxicity, chemical controllability, and biocompatibility. Today, extensive investigation is into the manufacturing of BC-based composites with other components such as nanoparticles, synthetic polymers, natural polymers, carbon materials, and biomolecules, which will allow the development of a wide range of biomedical and cosmetic products. Moreover, the addition of different reinforcement substances into BC and the organized arrangement of BC nano-fibers have proven a promising improvement in their properties for biomedical applications. This review paper highlights the progress in synthesizing BC-based composites and their applications in biomedical fields, such as wound healing, drug delivery, tissue engineering, and cancer treatment. It emphasizes high-performance BC-based materials and cosmetic applications. Furthermore, it presents challenges yet to be defeated and future possibilities for BC-based composites for biomedical and cosmetic applications.

Carbohydrate-based magnetic nanocomposites for effective cancer treatment

The treatment of cancer includes several conventional therapies like surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, etc. but mostly associated with limitations like off-targeted action, fatigue and organ toxicity. The emergence of nanotechnology-enabled drug delivery systems shows revolutionary development to overcome the limitations of such therapies. Magnetic nanocomposites are the new area of research that consists of nanoscale magnetic materials for triggering the release of active in response to an external magnetic field. For targeted drug delivery and enhancing the biocompatibility, effective functionalization of magnetic nanocomposites is required. Therefore, several biological molecules like carbohydrate polymers, proteins, nucleic acids, antibodies, etc. are used. This review article focuses on the insights of advances in the development of carbohydrate-based magnetic nanocomposites for safe and effective cancer treatment. Carbohydrate-based magnetic nanocomposites offer significant advantages like greater stability, higher biocompatibility and lower toxicity with better physicochemical properties such as higher magnetic moments and anisotropy, larger heating properties, etc. Magnetic nanocomposites explore in almost all the areas of cancer therapeutics for drug delivery carrier, as antineoplastic and MRI contrast agents and in photothermal, photodynamic and in combinational therapies for the development of safer nanocarriers. Such progressive trend of carbohydrate-based magnetic nanocomposites will encourage the researchers for better site-specific delivery with higher safety profile in cancer therapy.

Potential applications of bacterial cellulose and its composites for cancer treatment

Bacterial cellulose (BC) has received immense interest in medical, pharmaceutical, and other related fields owing to its intrinsic physical, mechanical, and biological features. Its structural features offer an ideal environment for developing composites, thereby further extending its areas of applications. BC was initially used in wound dressing, artificial blood vessels, organ development, and tissue regeneration; however, the recent focus has switched to 3D printing techniques. BC can serve as suitable material for treating different cancers due to unique liquid absorbing and drug loading properties. BC-based scaffolds have been synthesized and tested for in vitro culturing of cancer cells to simulate tumor microenvironments. These scaffolds support normal growth of cancer cells, particularly breast and ovarian cancer cells, showing significant adhesion, proliferation, ingrowth, and differentiation. This review describes the different approaches of manipulating BC for use in medicine, with particular focus on the applications of BC composites in cancer treatment. A detailed discussion about various formulations of BC in multiple cancer therapeutics is summarized.

Bacterial cellulose-based magnetic nanocomposites: A review

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a natural polymer that has unique and interesting structural, physical and chemical properties. These characteristics make it very attractive as a starting point for several novel developments in innovative research. However, the pristine BC lacks certain properties, in particular, magnetic property, which can be imparted to BC by incorporation of several types of magnetic nanoparticles. Magnetic nanocomposites based on BC exhibit additional magnetic functionality on top of the excellent properties of pristine BC, which make them promising materials with potential uses in various medical and environmental applications, as well as in advanced electronic devices. This review has compiled information about all classes of BC magnetic nanocomposites fabricated by various synthesis approaches and an overview of applications as well as improved features of these materials. A summary of the key developments of BC magnetic nanocomposites and emphasis on novel advances in this field is presented.