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Schwalb L, Tiemann O, Käfer U, Rüger CP, Gröger T, Zimmermann R. Applying a risk assessment guided evaluation for verifying comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography to analyse complex pharmaceuticals. Anal Bioanal Chem 2024; 416:1033-1045. [PMID: 38123752 PMCID: PMC10800299 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-023-05093-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
The reliability of analytical results is critical and indispensable when applied in regulated environments such as the pharmaceutical industry. Therefore, analytical workflows must be validated. However, validation guidelines are often designed for quantitative targeted analysis and rarely apply to qualitative untargeted approaches. In this study, we employ a risk assessment approach to identify critical parameters which might influence the qualitative results derived by online derivatisation - comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to a high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometer (GC × GC-HR-ToF-MS) for the analysis of the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) sodium bituminosulfonate (SBS). To show the complexity and feasibility of such an approach, we focus on investigating three potential risk factors: sample preparation, vapourability, and the thermal stability of sulfonates. Through the individual evaluation of these potential risk factors due to the application of sample preparation approaches and thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), we demonstrate the high derivatisation efficiency and repeatability of the online derivatisation method and confirm the absence of derivatisation-induced side reactions. In addition, we also show the potential thermal instability of an incompletely derivatised API. To address the limitation of these individual assessments, we applied a holistic evaluation step with negative electrospray ionisation Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (ESI( -) FT-ICR MS) as an orthogonal technique. This confirms that most of the API is detected via the presented GC-based method. Thereby, we demonstrated the practical feasibility of the risk assessment-based approach to ensure the validity of the qualitative data for a complex untargeted method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Schwalb
- Joint Mass Spectrometry Centre (JMSC), Chair of Analytical Chemistry, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
- Joint Mass Spectrometry Centre (JMSC), Cooperation Group "Comprehensive Molecular Analytics" (CMA), Helmholtz Zentrum München GmbH, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Ole Tiemann
- Joint Mass Spectrometry Centre (JMSC), Chair of Analytical Chemistry, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
- Department Life, Light & Matter (LLM), University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Uwe Käfer
- Joint Mass Spectrometry Centre (JMSC), Chair of Analytical Chemistry, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
- Joint Mass Spectrometry Centre (JMSC), Cooperation Group "Comprehensive Molecular Analytics" (CMA), Helmholtz Zentrum München GmbH, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
- Leibniz-Institute of Tropospheric Research (TROPOS), Leipzig, Germany
| | - Christopher Paul Rüger
- Joint Mass Spectrometry Centre (JMSC), Chair of Analytical Chemistry, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
- Department Life, Light & Matter (LLM), University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Thomas Gröger
- Joint Mass Spectrometry Centre (JMSC), Cooperation Group "Comprehensive Molecular Analytics" (CMA), Helmholtz Zentrum München GmbH, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany.
| | - Ralf Zimmermann
- Joint Mass Spectrometry Centre (JMSC), Chair of Analytical Chemistry, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
- Joint Mass Spectrometry Centre (JMSC), Cooperation Group "Comprehensive Molecular Analytics" (CMA), Helmholtz Zentrum München GmbH, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
- Department Life, Light & Matter (LLM), University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
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Kusenberg M, Eschenbacher A, Djokic MR, Zayoud A, Ragaert K, De Meester S, Van Geem KM. Opportunities and challenges for the application of post-consumer plastic waste pyrolysis oils as steam cracker feedstocks: To decontaminate or not to decontaminate? WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2022; 138:83-115. [PMID: 34871884 PMCID: PMC8769047 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2021.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/07/2021] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Thermochemical recycling of plastic waste to base chemicals via pyrolysis followed by a minimal amount of upgrading and steam cracking is expected to be the dominant chemical recycling technology in the coming decade. However, there are substantial safety and operational risks when using plastic waste pyrolysis oils instead of conventional fossil-based feedstocks. This is due to the fact that plastic waste pyrolysis oils contain a vast amount of contaminants which are the main drivers for corrosion, fouling and downstream catalyst poisoning in industrial steam cracking plants. Contaminants are therefore crucial to evaluate the steam cracking feasibility of these alternative feedstocks. Indeed, current plastic waste pyrolysis oils exceed typical feedstock specifications for numerous known contaminants, e.g. nitrogen (∼1650 vs. 100 ppm max.), oxygen (∼1250 vs. 100 ppm max.), chlorine (∼1460vs. 3 ppm max.), iron (∼33 vs. 0.001 ppm max.), sodium (∼0.8 vs. 0.125 ppm max.)and calcium (∼17vs. 0.5 ppm max.). Pyrolysis oils produced from post-consumer plastic waste can only meet the current specifications set for industrial steam cracker feedstocks if they are upgraded, with hydrogen based technologies being the most effective, in combination with an effective pre-treatment of the plastic waste such as dehalogenation. Moreover, steam crackers are reliant on a stable and predictable feedstock quality and quantity representing a challenge with plastic waste being largely influenced by consumer behavior, seasonal changes and local sorting efficiencies. Nevertheless, with standardization of sorting plants this is expected to become less problematic in the coming decade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marvin Kusenberg
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Andreas Eschenbacher
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Marko R Djokic
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Azd Zayoud
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Kim Ragaert
- Center for Polymer and Material Technologies (CPMT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Kevin M Van Geem
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
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Influence of Pressure on Product Composition and Hydrogen Consumption in Hydrotreating of Gas Oil and Rapeseed Oil Blends over a NiMo Catalyst. Catalysts 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/catal11091093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study describes the co-hydrotreating of mixtures of rapeseed oil (0–20 wt%) with a petroleum feedstock consisting of 90 wt% of straight run gas oil and 10 wt% of light cycle oil. The hydrotreating was carried out in a laboratory flow reactor using a sulfided NiMo/Al2O3 catalyst at a temperature of 345 °C, the pressure of 4.0 and 8.0 MPa, a weight hourly space velocity of 1.0 h−1 and hydrogen to feedstock ratio of 230 m3∙m−3. All the liquid products met the EU diesel fuel specifications for the sulfur content (<10 mg∙kg−1). The content of aromatics in the products was very low due to the high hydrogenation activity of the catalyst and the total conversion of the rapeseed oil into saturated hydrocarbons. The addition of a depressant did not affect the cold filter plugging point of the products. The larger content of n-C17 than n-C18 alkanes suggested that the hydrodecarboxylation and hydrodecarbonylation reactions were preferred over the hydrodeoxygenation of the rapeseed oil. The hydrogen consumption increased with increasing pressure and the hydrogen consumption for the rapeseed oil conversion was higher when compared to the hydrotreating of the petroleum feedstock.
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Towards a new pseudo-quantitative approach to evaluate the ionization response of nitrogen compounds in complex matrices. Sci Rep 2021; 11:6417. [PMID: 33742051 PMCID: PMC7979777 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-85854-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Ultra high-resolution mass spectrometry (FT-ICR MS) coupled to electrospray ionization (ESI) provides unprecedented molecular characterization of complex matrices such as petroleum products. However, ESI faces major ionization competition phenomena that prevent the absolute quantification of the compounds of interest. On the other hand, comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC) coupled to specific detectors (HRMS or NCD) is able to quantify the main families identified in these complex matrices. In this paper, this innovative dual approach has been used to evaluate the ionization response of nitrogen compounds in gas oils as a case study. To this extent, a large gas oil dataset has been analyzed by GC × GC/HRMS, GC × GC-NCD and ESI(+/−)-FT-ICR MS. Then, the concentrations obtained from GC × GC-NCD have been compared to those obtained from FT-ICR MS hence proving that strong ionization competitions are taking place and also depending on the origin of the sample. Finally, multilinear regressions (MLR) have been used to quantitatively predict nitrogen families from FT-ICR MS measurements as well as start rationalizing the ionization competition phenomena taking place between them in different types of gas oils.
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Comparison of Thermal and Flow-Based Modulation in Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography—Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (GC × GC-TOFMS) for the Analysis of Base Oils. SEPARATIONS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/separations7040070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Base oils are produced by refining crude oil or through chemical synthesis. They are a key component of engine oils. With an immense range of carbon numbers and boiling points, analyzing such complex mixtures is very difficult. The need to monitor industrial petroleum processing steps, as well as to identify petrochemical environmental pollutants, drives the search for improved characterization methods. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC) is one of the best tools for that. The modulator used in GC × GC is responsible for trapping/sampling the first dimension (1D) column analytes, then reinjecting them in the form of narrow bands onto the second dimension (2D) column for further separation. Modulators used today generally fall into two categories, thermal and flow ones. Heater-based thermal modulators trap the 1D column effluent at or above ambient temperatures. Flow-based modulators utilize storage loop(s) to collect the 1D effluent, which is subsequently flushed into the second-dimension column for further separation. A single-stage, consumable-free thermal modulator and a reverse fill/flush flow modulator were compared for the characterization of base oils. Both were evaluated on their ability to achieve separation of several conventional and synthetic engine oils components. A reverse column set, polar 1D and nonpolar 2D, allowed group-type analysis of all classes, including linear, branched, and aromatic species. The results show the ability to achieve a comprehensive separation of specific compound classes and the differentiation of engine oil types and manufacturers. Soft ionization assisted in tentative identification of two alkylated diphenylamines in each sample. The advantages and limitations of both thermal and flow modulation are presented.
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Román-Kustas J, Hoffman JB, Alonso D, Reed JH, Gonsalves AE, Oh J, Hong S, Jo KD, Dana CE, Alleyne M, Miljkovic N, Cropek DM. Analysis of cicada wing surface constituents by comprehensive multidimensional gas chromatography for species differentiation. Microchem J 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2020.105089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Development of gas chromatographic pattern recognition and classification tools for compliance and forensic analyses of fuels: A review. Anal Chim Acta 2020; 1132:157-186. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2020.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Yang C, Lambert P, Nguyen M, Yang Z, Hollebone BP, Fieldhouse B, Brown CE. Application of gas chromatography-high resolution quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry in fingerprinting analysis of polycyclic aromatic sulfur heterocycles. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1630:461577. [PMID: 32980610 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2020.461577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic sulfur heterocycles (PASHs), as a group of major sulfur-containing compounds, widely occur in crude oil and its refined products. Accurate analyses of these petrochemical components play an important role in monitoring oil quality, forensic source identification, and assessment of environmental impact of an oil spill. PASHs occur at relatively lower abundances in most crude oils and refined petroleum products than their corresponding aromatic hydrocarbons and are co-eluted together with some petroleum hydrocarbons in chromatographic analysis, resulting in high uncertainty for their quantitation. Capillary gas chromatography coupled with a quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-QTOF-MS) provides high resolution and high mass accuracy, which facilitates discrimination of the delicate mass defects of isobaric compounds with the same nominal mass and external matrix material. In this work, GC-QTOF-MS was applied to analyze bicyclic to pentacyclic PASHs including benzothiophenes, dibenzothiophenes, benzonaphthothiophenes, dinaphthothiophenes and their C1- to C4- alkylated homologues in a number of crude oils, refined petroleum products, and environmental samples. GC-QTOF-MS analysis substantially improved the identification confidence and reduced quantitation uncertainty of PASHs and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by eliminating the interferences presented in nominal mass chromatograms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Yang
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 335 River Road, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
| | - Patrick Lambert
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 335 River Road, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Monica Nguyen
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 335 River Road, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Zeyu Yang
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 335 River Road, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Bruce P Hollebone
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 335 River Road, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Ben Fieldhouse
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 335 River Road, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Carl E Brown
- Emergencies Science and Technology Section, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 335 River Road, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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Song X, Zhu L, Wang X, Zheng F, Zhao M, Liu Y, Li H, Zhang F, Zhang Y, Chen F. Characterization of key aroma-active sulfur-containing compounds in Chinese Laobaigan Baijiu by gas chromatography-olfactometry and comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with sulfur chemiluminescence detection. Food Chem 2019; 297:124959. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.124959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Luong J, Hua Y, Gras R, Shellie RA. Uniformity and Sensitivity Improvements in Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography Using Flame Ionization Detection with Post-Column Reaction. Anal Chem 2019; 91:11223-11230. [PMID: 31393704 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b02159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A 3D-printed microreactor for post-column reactions was successfully integrated with comprehensive two -dimensional gas chromatography. A two-stage post-column reaction provided a carbon-independent response, enhanced the flame ionization detection uniformity, and improved the detector sensitivity. These enhancements are critical to overcome challenges in analyses using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography and flame ionization detection, which aim to separate and quantify multiple components. Post-column reaction flame ionization detection eliminated the requirement of multilevel and multicompound calibration, it enabled the determination of target analytes with a single-carbon-containing calibration compound with an accuracy of ±10%, and it improved the sensitivity for compounds that were not efficiently ionized by flame ionization detection. Extra column band-broadening caused by the incorporation of the 3D-printed microreactor was minimized using optimized reactor operating parameters and intercolumn connectivity. Chromatographic fidelity was in the practical domain of comprehensive 2D gas chromatography. Typical peak widths at half-height using the described approach ranged from 165 to 235 ms for probe compounds with retention factors spanning 5 < k < 40.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jim Luong
- Dow Chemical Canada ULC , Highway 15 , Fort Saskatchewan , Alberta T8L 2P4 , Canada.,Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS) , University of Tasmania , Private Bag 75 , Hobart , Tasmania 7001 , Australia
| | - Yujuan Hua
- Dow Chemical Canada ULC , Highway 15 , Fort Saskatchewan , Alberta T8L 2P4 , Canada
| | - Ronda Gras
- Dow Chemical Canada ULC , Highway 15 , Fort Saskatchewan , Alberta T8L 2P4 , Canada.,Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS) , University of Tasmania , Private Bag 75 , Hobart , Tasmania 7001 , Australia
| | - Robert A Shellie
- Centre for Advanced Sensory Science (CASS), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences , Deakin University , Burwood Highway , Burwood , Victoria 3125 , Australia
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Biedermann M, Grob K. Advantages of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography for comprehensive analysis of potential migrants from food contact materials. Anal Chim Acta 2018; 1057:11-17. [PMID: 30832909 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2018.10.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
All substances migrating from food contact materials (FCMs), such as packagings, into food must be safe. This presupposes comprehensive analysis of all constituents potentially reaching a concentration in food that may be of toxicological concern. There is no single technique meeting this task and usually several need to be combined. In many cases, comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GCxGC) is the best technique available to start with. It provides high resolution and an overview in well-structured plots, grouping similar substances in a manner facilitating identifications. Further, flame ionization detection (FID) enables approximate quantitation without standards, and electron impact (EI) fragmentation in mass spectrometry (MS) provides access to large libraries for identification. GC is limited in amenable molecular mass, but the characterization of the lower mass constituents is usually helpful also for the identification of higher mass ones by techniques like HPLC-MS. The scope of this paper is to advocate the use of GCxGC for comprehensive migrate analysis, based on advantages illustrated by examples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurus Biedermann
- Official Food Control Authority of the Canton of Zurich (Kantonales Labor), P.O. Box, CH-8032, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Koni Grob
- Official Food Control Authority of the Canton of Zurich (Kantonales Labor), P.O. Box, CH-8032, Zurich, Switzerland.
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Zavahir JS, Nolvachai Y, Marriott PJ. Molecular spectroscopy – Information rich detection for gas chromatography. Trends Analyt Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2017.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Prebihalo SE, Berrier KL, Freye CE, Bahaghighat HD, Moore NR, Pinkerton DK, Synovec RE. Multidimensional Gas Chromatography: Advances in Instrumentation, Chemometrics, and Applications. Anal Chem 2017; 90:505-532. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b04226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E. Prebihalo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Kelsey L. Berrier
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Chris E. Freye
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - H. Daniel Bahaghighat
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Life Science, United States Military Academy, West Point, New York 10996, United States
| | - Nicholas R. Moore
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - David K. Pinkerton
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Robert E. Synovec
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
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