Baicalein inhibits nuclear factor-κB and apoptosis via c-FLIP and MAPK in D-GalN/LPS induced acute liver failure in murine models. Chem Biol Interact. 2010;188:526-534. [PMID: 20850421 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2010.09.008]

THE PROTECTIVE EFFECT OF DEXMEDETOMIDINE ON THE LIVER INJURY IN SEPSIS THROUGH INHIBITION OF NECROPTOSIS

ABSTRACT

Background: Sepsis-induced liver injury leads to extensive necroptosis in hepatocytes, which is the main factor of liver dysfunction. This study aims to investigate the protective effect of dexmedetomidine (DEX) on septic liver and to explore whether its molecular mechanism is related to the modulation of necroptosis. Methods: The model of septic liver injury was induced by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) in rats. DEX and necrostatin-1(Nec-1), a specific antagonist of necroptosis, were administered 1 h before CLP. The levels of arterial blood gas, serum aspartate aminotransferase, and alanine aminotransferase were measured at 6, 12 and 24 h after CLP. The survival rate was observed 24 h after CLP. Liver pathological changes and apoptosis, the contents of IL-6 and TNF-α in liver tissue homogenates, the ROS content in liver tissue, and the expression levels of RIP1, RIP3, MLKL, and HMGB1 were detected. Results: At 6, 12, and 24 h after CLP, the levels of aspartate aminotransferase, and alanine aminotransferase levels increased, and liver enzyme levels gradually increased with the progression of sepsis. In arterial blood gas analysis, P a O 2 gradually decreased and lactic acid concentration gradually increased during these three periods. The morphological impairment of liver tissues, increased apoptosis, elevated inflammatory factors (IL-6 and TNF-α), increased ROS level, and necroptosis components (RIP1, RIP3, MLKL, and HMGB1) were all observed in sepsis rats. However, these injuries can be ameliorated by pretreatment with DEX. Meanwhile, Nec-1 pretreatment also reduced the expression of RIP1, RIP3, MLKL, HMGB1, and ROS level. Conclusion: Our study suggests that DEX alleviates septic liver injury, and the mechanism is associated with the inhibition of necroptosis.

rCsHscB Derived from Clonorchis sinensis: A Carcinogenic Liver Fluke Ameliorates LPS-Induced Acute Hepatic Injury by Repression of Inflammation

Sepsis-associated acute liver injury caused by spillovers of bacteria and endotoxins (lipopolysaccharide, LPS) into the liver remains a public health issue due to the lack of specific therapeutic approaches. Previous studies showed that the recombinant protein HscB (rCsHscB) of Clonorchis sinensis, a carcinogenic liver fluke, had an anti-inflammatory effect and could alleviate inflammatory diseases such as enteritis; however, whether it can prevent sepsis-associated acute liver injury induced by LPS is still unknown. In our current study, the therapeutic effects and the potential mechanisms of rCsHscB on LPS-induced acute liver injury were investigated both in vivo and in vitro. The data showed that rCsHscB prevented LPS-induced liver damage, as demonstrated by histopathological observation and hepatic damage markers (the activities of serum ALT and AST) in a murine model of sepsis-associated acute liver injury. rCsHscB also significantly reversed the high levels of serum IL-6 and MCP-1 induced by LPS. In addition, rCsHscB attenuated the production of LPS-induced proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-6 and TNF-α, in a macrophage cell line-RAW264.7, through possible mediation by the MAPK signaling pathway in vitro. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that rCsHscB derived from a fluke C. sinensis protects against sepsis-associated acute liver injury induced by LPS, which may be attributed to the inhibition of the MAPK signaling pathway. Our present study provides a potential therapeutic strategy for sepsis-associated acute liver injury.

Protective and therapeutic effects of Scutellaria baicalensis and its main active ingredients baicalin and baicalein against natural toxicities and physical hazards: a review of mechanisms

OBJECTIVES

Scutellaria baicalensis (SB) has been traditionally used to combat a variety of conditions ranging from ischemic heart disease to cancer. The protective effects of SB are due to the action of two main flavonoids baicalin (BA) and baicalein (BE). This paper aimed to provide a narrative review of the protective and antidotal effects of SB and its main constituents against natural toxicities and physical hazards.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

Scientific databases Medline, Scopus, and Web of Science were thoroughly searched, based on different keywords for in vivo, in vitro and clinical studies which reported protective or therapeutic effects of SB or its constituents in natural and physical toxicities.

RESULTS

Numerous studies have reported that treatment with BE, BA, or total SB extract prevents or counteracts the detrimental toxic effects of various natural compounds and physical hazards. The toxic agents include mycotoxins, lipopolysaccharide, multiple plants and animal-derived substances as well as physical factors which negatively affected vital organs such as CNS, liver, kidneys, lung and heart. Increasing the expression of radical scavenging enzymes and glutathione content as well as inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines and pro-apoptotic mediators were important mechanisms of action.

CONCLUSION

Different studies on the Chinese skullcap have exhibited that its total root extract, BA or BE can act as potential antidotes or protective agents against the damage induced by natural toxins and physical factors by alleviating oxidative stress and inflammation. However, the scarcity of high-quality clinical evidence means that further clinical studies are required to reach a more definitive conclusion.

Baicalein Attenuates Severe Polymicrobial Sepsis via lleviating Immune Dysfunction of T Lymphocytes and Inflammation

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of baicalein on polymicrobial sepsis-induced immune dysfunction and organ injury.

METHODS

A sepsis model was induced in Sprague-Dawley rats via caecal ligation and puncture (CLP). Specific pathogen free rats were randomly divided into a sham group, CLP group and CLP + baicalein (Bai) group (n=16 each). Rats in the CLP + Bai group were intravenously injected with baicalein (20 mg/kg) at 1 and 10 h after CLP. Survival rate, bacterial load, and organ damage were assessed. Then each group was evaluated at 6, 12, and 24 h to investigate the effect of baicalein on immune cells and inflammatory cytokines in septic rats.

RESULTS

Baicalein treatment significantly improved the survival of septic rats, decreased the bacterial burden, and moderated tissue damage (spleen, liver, and lung), as observed by haematoxylin and eosin staining. Septic rats treated with baicalein had strikingly increased proportions of CD3⁺CD4⁺ T cells and ratios of CD4⁺/CD8⁺ T cells in the peripheral blood and spleen (all P<0.05). Moreover, baicalein treatment decreased the apoptotic rate of whole white blood cells and spleen cells at 24 h after surgery (P<0.05). Baicalein significantly reduced the levels of tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin-6 (IL-6) and increased IL-10, and the expression levels of galectin 9 were also raised in the spleen (P<0.01).

CONCLUSION

Baicalein may be an effective immunomodulator that attenuates overwhelming inflammatory responses in severe abdominal sepsis.

Hepatoprotective effect of different mulberry leaf extracts against acute liver injury in rats by alleviating oxidative stress and inflammatory response

This study investigated the hepatoprotective effect of various mulberry (Morus alba L.) leaf extracts (MLEs), including mulberry ethanol extract (MEE), aqueous extract (MAE) and combination extract (MCE) against D-galactosamine (D-GalN)...

Inhibition of Oxidative Stress and ALOX12 and NF-κB Pathways Contribute to the Protective Effect of Baicalein on Carbon Tetrachloride-Induced Acute Liver Injury

This study investigates the protective effect of baicalein on carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced acute liver injury and the underlying molecular mechanisms. Mice were orally administrated baicalein at 25 and 100 mg/kg/day for 7 consecutive days or ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1) at 10 mg/kg was i.p. injected in mice at 2 and 24 h prior to CCl₄ injection or the vehicle. Our results showed that baicalein or Fer-1 supplementation significantly attenuated CCl₄ exposure-induced elevations of serum alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase, and malondialdehyde levels in the liver tissues and unregulated glutathione levels. Baicalein treatment inhibited the nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) pathway, activated the erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) pathway in liver tissues, and markedly improved CCl₄-induced apoptosis, inflammation and ferroptosis in liver tissues exposed with CCl₄. In vitro, baicalein treatment improved CCl₄ -induced decreases of cell viabilities and knockdown of Nrf2 and arachidonate 12-lipoxygenase (ALOX12) genes partly abolished the protective effect of baicalein on CCl₄ -induced cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells. In conclusion, our results reveal that baicalein supplementation ameliorates CCl₄-induced acute liver injury in mice by upregulating the antioxidant defense pathways and downregulating oxidative stress, apoptosis, inflammation and ferroptosis, which involved the activation of Nrf2 pathway and the inhibition of ALOX12 and NF-κB pathways.

Effects of Silymarin and Baicalein on Glycogen Storage in the Hepatocytes of Rat Models of Hepatic Injury

Background: An association has been reported between hepatitis and glycogen storage problems. Glycogen storage disease (GSD) type I is induced by G6PD deficiency. Silymarin and baicalein, as herbal agents, have hepatoprotective and antioxidant potentials. Objectives: In this study, we assessed the effects of these herbs on liver glycogen storage problems and hepatitis. Methods: Twenty male rats kept under standard laboratory conditions were divided into four groups, including healthy (control) and hepatotoxicity treated with silymarin, baicalein, or none. The levels of ALT, AST, ALP, LDL, HDL, VLDL, TG, Cho, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α were measured, and the expression levels of G6PD, CTGF, HMGB1, and P53 were determined. Also, liver histopathology was examined. Results: Treatment with silymarin and baicalein reduced the serum levels of ALT, AST, ALP, LDL, VLDL, TG, Cho, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. Silymarin increased G6PD gene expression, and both silymarin and baicalein reduced CTGF, P53, and HMGB1 gene expressions, but silymarin and baicalein had no effects on glycogen storage of hepatocytes. Conclusions: Baicalein and silymarin showed anti-inflammatory effects and could control inflammation and necrotic factors, but they did not affect hepatic glycogen storage.

Sinapic acid ameliorates D-galactosamine/lipopolysaccharide-induced fulminant hepatitis in rats: Role of nuclear factor erythroid-related factor 2/heme oxygenase-1 pathways

BACKGROUND

Sinapic acid (SA) has been shown to have various pharmacological properties such as antioxidant, antifibrotic, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities. Its mechanism of action is dependent upon its ability to curb free radical production and protect against oxidative stress-induced tissue injuries.

AIM

To study the hepatoprotective effects of SA against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/D-galactosamine (D-GalN)-induced acute liver failure (ALF) in rats.

METHODS

Experimental ALF was induced with an intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of 8 μg LPS and 800 mg/kg D-GalN in normal saline. SA was administered orally once daily starting 7 d before LPS/D-GalN treatment.

RESULTS

Data showed that SA ameliorates acute liver dysfunction, decreases serum levels of alanine transaminase (ALT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), as well as malondialdehyde (MDA) and NO levels in ALF model rats. However, pretreatment with SA (20 mg/kg and 40 mg/kg) reduced nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) activation and levels of inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin 6). Also, SA increased the activity of the nuclear factor erythroid-related factor 2/heme oxygenase-1 (Nrf2/HO-1) signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, SA offers significant protection against LPS/D-GalN-induced ALF in rats by upregulating Nrf2/HO-1 and downregulating NF-κB.

Identification of Mitochondrial Ligands with Hepatoprotective Activity from Notopterygii Rhizoma et Radix Using Affinity Ultrafiltration/Liquid Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry

In recent years, the incidence of diseases associated with hepatic injury has increased in prevalence. Targeting the mitochondria to protect liver function has gained momentum due to their central role in energy production, apoptotic cell death, oxidative stress, calcium homeostasis, and lipid metabolism. In this study, we employed a hepatic mitochondria-based centrifugal ultrafiltration/liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry method (CM-HMC) to identify hepatic mitochondria ligands from medicinal herbs (MHs) including Notopterygii Rhizoma et Radix (NRR) that possess hepatic-protective effects. A total of 4 newly identified mitochondrial ligands were successfully identified by CM-HMC. The mitochondria-regulating activities of 3 of the 4 hits were confirmed using isolated mitochondria. The hepatic-protective effects of one of these hits were validated in carbon tetrachloride-damaged human liver L02 cell models. We have thus identified new natural hepatic-protectants that enhance our understanding of the hepatic-protective mechanisms of MHs. CM-HMC was proven to efficiently screen for mitochondrial ligands from MHs.

Traditional Chinese medicine combined with hepatic targeted drug delivery systems: A new strategy for the treatment of liver diseases

Liver diseases are clinically common and present a substantial public health issue. Many of the currently available drugs for the treatment of liver diseases suffer from limitations that include low hepatic distribution, lack of target effects, poor in vivo stability and adverse effects on other organs. Consequently, conventional treatment of hepatic diseases is ineffective. TCM is commonly used in the treatment of liver diseases worldwide, particularly in China, and has advantages over conventional therapy. HTDDS can be designed to enhance clinical efficacy in the treatment of liver diseases. We have conducted an extensive review of 335 studies reported since 1964. These included about 166 references involving the treatment of liver diseases with TCM (covering active components of TCM, single TCM and Chinese medicine formulas), 169 reports on HTDDS and background studies on liver-related diseases. Here we review the long history of TCM in the treatment of liver diseases.We have also reviewed the status of studies on active components of TCM using nanotechnology-based targeted delivery systems to provide support for further research and development of TCM-based targeted preparations for the treatment of liver disease.

Regression of fibrosis by cilostazol in a rat model of thioacetamide-induced liver fibrosis: Up regulation of hepatic cAMP, and modulation of inflammatory, oxidative stress and apoptotic biomarkers

In liver fibrosis, conversion of fibroblasts to profibrogenic myofibroblasts significantly drives the development of the disease. A crucial role of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) in regulation of fibroblast function has been reported. Increase in cAMP levels has been found to decrease fibroblast proliferation, inhibit their conversion to myofibroblast, and stimulate their death. cAMP is generated by adenyl cyclase (AC), and degraded by cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase (PDE). In this study, the antifibrotic effect of a PDE inhibitor, cilostazol (Cilo), on a rat model of liver fibrosis induced by thioacetamide (TAA) was investigated. Four groups of rats were used; the first group received the vehicles and served as the normal control group, while liver fibrosis was induced in the other groups using (TAA, 200 mg/kg/biweekly for 8 successive weeks, ip). The last two groups were treated with Cilo (50 and 100 mg/kg/day, po, respectively). Induction of liver fibrosis in TAA-treated rats was observed as evidenced by the biochemical and histopathological findings. On the other hand, a potent antifibrotic effect was observed in the groups treated with Cilo, with preference to the higher dose. In these groups, a significant increase in the liver content of cAMP was demonstrated that was accompanied by reduction in the hepatic expression of key fibrogenic cytokines, growth factors, and inflammatory biomarkers, including interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, nuclear factor kappa B, and transforming growth factor-beta as compared to TAA group. Moreover, amelioration of TAA-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in the liver has been observed. These findings reveal the antifibrotic effect of Cilo against TAA-induced liver fibrosis in rats, and suggest regulation of cAMP pathway, together with the modulation of oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis as mechanistic cassette underlines this effect.

Efficiently Capturing Mitochondria-Targeted Constituents with Hepatoprotective Activity from Medicinal Herbs

Targeting mitochondria as a hepatic-protective strategy has gained attention, because of their important roles in energy production, adjustment of apoptosis, and generation of reactive oxygen species. To promote the discovery of natural mitochondria-targeted hepatic-protectants, we established a hepatocellular mitochondria-based capturing method by coupling affinity ultrafiltration with liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS), which is suitable for identifying mitochondrial ligands from medicinal herbs (MHs). After evaluating the feasibility of the method, it was applied for capturing mitochondria-targeting constituents from Peucedani Radix extract. A total of 10 active compounds were identified by LC/MS, all of which were newly identified mitochondrial ligands. The mitochondria-remedying activity of 4 of the 10 hits was confirmed by pharmacological tests in vitro. Additionally, the hepatic-protective abilities of 4 hits were verified in both carbon tetrachloride-damaged liver L02 cells and mice. These results indicated that the method could be used for identifying hepatic mitochondria-targeting constituents in MHs, which might be beneficial for hepatic-protective development.

Baicalein Targets GTPase-Mediated Autophagy to Eliminate Liver Tumor-Initiating Stem Cell-Like Cells Resistant to mTORC1 Inhibition

Drug resistance is a major problem in the treatment of liver cancer. Mammalian Target of Rapamycin 1 (mTORC1) inhibitors have been tested for the treatment of liver cancer based on hyperactive mTOR in this malignancy. However, their clinical trials showed poor outcome, most likely due to their ability to upregulate CD133 and promote chemoresistance. The CD133+ tumor-initiating stem cell-like cells (TICs) isolated from mouse and human liver tumors are chemoresistant, and identification of an approach to abrogate this resistance is desired. In search of a compound that rescinds resistance of TICs to mTORC1 inhibition and improves chemotherapy, we identified baicalein (BC), which selectively chemosensitizes TICs and the human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell line Huh7 cells but not mouse and human primary hepatocytes. Nanobead pull-down and mass-spectrometric analysis, biochemical binding assay, and three-dimensional computational modeling studies reveal BC's ability to competitively inhibit guanosine triphosphate binding of SAR1B guanosine triphosphatase, which is essential for autophagy. Indeed, BC suppresses autophagy induced by an mTORC1 inhibitor and synergizes cell death caused by mTORC1 inhibition in TIC and Huh7 spheroid formation and in the patient-derived xenograft model of HCC. The BC-induced chemosensitization is rescued by SAR1B expression and phenocopied by SAR1B knockdown in cancer cells treated with a mTORC1 inhibitor. Conclusion: These results identify SAR1B as a target in liver TICs and HCC cells resistant to mTORC1 inhibition.

Anti‑apoptotic effects of human placental hydrolysate against hepatocyte toxicity in vivo and in vitro

Apoptosis and oxidative stress are essential for the pathogenesis of acute liver failure and fulminant hepatic failure. Human placental hydrolysate (hPH) has been reported to possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In the present study, the protective effects of hPH against D-galactosamine (D-GalN)- and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced hepatocyte apoptosis were investigated in vivo. In addition, the molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-apoptotic activities of hPH against D-GalN-induced cell death in vitro were examined. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were injected with D-GaIN/LPS with or without the administration of hPH. Rats were sacrificed 24 h after D-GaIN/LPS intraperitoneal injection, and the blood and liver samples were collected for future inflammation and hepatotoxicity analyses. Changes in cell viability, apoptosis protein expression, mitochondrial mass, mitochondrial membrane potential, reactive oxygen species generation, and the levels of proteins and mRNA associated with a protective mechanism were determined in HepG2 cells pretreated with hPH for 2 h prior to D-GalN exposure. The findings suggested that hPH treatment effectively protected against D-GalN/LPS-induced hepatocyte apoptosis by reducing the levels of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α, and increasing the level of proliferating cell nuclear antigen. It was also found that hPH inhibited the apoptotic cell death induced by D-GalN. hPH activated the expression of antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase, which were further upregulated by the Kelch-like ECH2-associated protein 1-p62-nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 pathway, a component of oxidative stress defense mechanisms. Furthermore, hPH markedly reduced cytosolic and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and rescued mitochondrial loss and dysfunction through the reduction of damage-regulated autophagy modulator, p53, and C/EBP homologous protein. Collectively, hPH exhibited a protective role in hepatocyte apoptosis by inhibiting oxidative stress and maintaining cell homeostasis. The underlying mechanisms may be associated with the inhibition of endoplasmic reticulum stress and minimization of the autophagy progress.

Semi-Mechanism-Based Pharmacodynamic Model for the Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Baicalein in LPS-Stimulated RAW264.7 Macrophages

Monitoring of the inhibition of TNF-α, IL-6, iNOS, and NO is used to effectively evaluate anti-inflammatory drugs. Baicalein was found to have good anti-inflammatory activities, but its detailed cellular pharmacodynamic events have not been expatiated by any other study. The inflammatory mediators, including TNF-α, IL-6, iNOS, and NO production in RAW264.7 macrophage induced by LPS, were measured. It was found that these data showed a sequential pattern on time and based on these points a cellular pharmacodynamic model was developed and tested. TNF-α and IL-6 were quantified by ELISA, NO was detected by Griess and iNOS expression was measured by Western blot. The pharmacodynamic model was developed using a NLME modeling program Monolix® 2016R1.¹The results showed that baicalein quickly suppressed release of TNF-α in a concentration-dependent manner, and consequently causing the diminution of IL-6 and iNOS/NO. The pharmacodynamic model simulation successfully described the experimental data, supporting the hypothesis that IL-6 and iNOS /NO release after LPS stimulation is mediated by TNF-α rather than LPS directly. The pharmacodynamic model allowed a well understanding of the cellular pharmacodynamic mechanism of baicalein in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Baicalein acts as a nephroprotectant that ameliorates colistin-induced nephrotoxicity by activating the antioxidant defence mechanism of the kidneys and down-regulating the inflammatory response

Background

Nephrotoxicity is the major adverse effect patients experience during colistin therapy. The development of effective nephroprotective agents that can be co-administered during polymyxin therapy remains a priority area in antimicrobial chemotherapy.

Objectives

To investigate the nephroprotective effect of baicalein, a component of the root of Scutellaria baicalensis, against colistin-induced nephrotoxicity using a mouse model.

Methods

C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into the following groups: control, baicalein 100 mg/kg/day (administered orally), colistin (18 mg/kg/day administered intraperitoneally) and colistin (18 mg/kg/day) plus baicalein (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg/day). After 7 day treatments, histopathological damage, the markers of renal functions, oxidative stress and inflammation were examined. The expressions of Nrf2, HO-1 and NF-κB mRNAs were also further examined using quantitative RT-PCR examination.

Results

Baicalein co-administration markedly attenuated colistin-induced oxidative and nitrative stress, apoptosis, the infiltration of inflammatory cells, and caused decreases in IL-1β and TNF-α levels (all P < 0.05 or 0.01) in the kidney tissues. Baicalein co-administration up-regulated expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 mRNAs and down-regulated the expression of NF-κB mRNA, compared with those in the colistin alone group.

Conclusions

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating the protective effect of baicalein on colistin-induced nephrotoxicity and apoptosis by activating the antioxidant defence mechanism in kidneys and down-regulating the inflammatory response. Our study highlights that oral baicalein could potentially ameliorate nephrotoxicity in patients undergoing polymyxin therapy.

Baicalein protects tert‑butyl hydroperoxide‑induced hepatotoxicity dependent of reactive oxygen species removal

Baicalein (BA), one of the major bioactive flavonoids isolated from Scutellariae Radix, possesses various pharmacological activities. The present study aimed to investigate the protective effects of BA on tert‑butyl hydroperoxide (t‑BHP)‑induced hepatotoxicity, and to investigate the potential mechanisms in LO2 cells. BA was demonstrated to possess protective properties against t‑BHP injury in LO2 cells, as evidenced by MTT and lactate dehydrogenase assays. BA significantly prevented t‑BHP‑induced depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), decreased the percentage of apoptotic cells caused by t‑BHP, and prevented intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in LO2 cells. Furthermore, BA slightly triggered autophagy in LO2 cells, as evidenced by the elevation of LC3‑II expression, while BA combined treatment with an autophagy inhibitor (chloroquine) or activator (rapamycin) did not alter the hepatoprotective properties. In conclusion, BA may possess a hepatoprotective effect against t‑BHP‑induced liver cell injury, dependent on ROS removal. Therefore, BA may represent a potential drug candidate in protecting hepatotoxicity.

Progress in research of Chinese herbal medicines with anti-hepatic fibrosis activity

Hepatic fibrosis is a common pathological process for various kinds of chronic liver diseases to progress to cirrhosis and even liver cancer. Currently, many natural medicines have been reported and demonstrated to be effective in preventing and curing hepatic fibrosis with few side effects. In China, these medicines are easily available because of the wide raw material source here. These medicines exert anti-fibrosis effects via multiple targets at multiple levels. Therefore, they have their own advantages in healing hepatic fibrosis. This paper summarizes the mechanism of hepatic fibrosis and the progress in research of natural medicines and their active ingredients that have anti-hepatic fibrosis activity, with an aim to provide some clues to preventing and curing hepatic fibrosis with Chinese herbal medicines.

Protective effects of Chinese traditional medicine against liver injury and liver fibrosis and mechanisms involved

Liver injury and liver fibrosis are clinically common, and there is currently a lack of ideal drugs for these conditions. Recent studies have indicated that the effective components of traditional Chinese medicine show certain efficacy in prevention and treatment of liver injury and liver fibrosis, and the mechanisms are related to the protection of liver cells, anti-oxidation and anti-inflammation. This paper discusses the protective effects of the effective components of traditional Chinese medicine against liver injury and liver fibrosis and the mechanisms involved, with an aim to promote the development of therapeutic drugs for liver injury and liver fibrosis.

Human endometrial regenerative cells alleviate carbon tetrachloride-induced acute liver injury in mice

Background

The endometrial regenerative cell (ERC) is a novel type of adult mesenchymal stem cell isolated from menstrual blood. Previous studies demonstrated that ERCs possess unique immunoregulatory properties in vitro and in vivo, as well as the ability to differentiate into functional hepatocyte-like cells. For these reasons, the present study was undertaken to explore the effects of ERCs on carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)–induced acute liver injury (ALI).

Methods

An ALI model in C57BL/6 mice was induced by administration of intraperitoneal injection of CCl₄. Transplanted ERCs were intravenously injected (1 million/mouse) into mice 30 min after ALI induction. Liver function, pathological and immunohistological changes, cell tracking, immune cell populations and cytokine profiles were assessed 24 h after the CCl₄ induction.

Results

ERC treatment effectively decreased the CCl₄-induced elevation of serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activities and improved hepatic histopathological abnormalities compared to the untreated ALI group. Immunohistochemical staining showed that over-expression of lymphocyte antigen 6 complex, locus G (Ly6G) was markedly inhibited, whereas expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) was increased after ERC treatment. Furthermore, the frequency of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell populations in the spleen was significantly down-regulated, while the percentage of splenic CD4⁺CD25⁺FOXP3⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs) was obviously up-regulated after ERC treatment. Moreover, splenic dendritic cells in ERC-treated mice exhibited dramatically decreased MHC-II expression. Cell tracking studies showed that transplanted PKH26-labeled ERCs engrafted to lung, spleen and injured liver. Compared to untreated controls, mice treated with ERCs had lower levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α but higher level of IL-10 in both serum and liver.

Conclusions

Human ERCs protect the liver from acute injury in mice through hepatocyte proliferation promotion, as well as through anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory effects.

Key Molecular Mechanisms of Chaiqinchengqi Decoction in Alleviating the Pulmonary Albumin Leakage Caused by Endotoxemia in Severe Acute Pancreatitis Rats

To reveal the key molecular mechanisms of Chaiqinchengqi decoction (CQCQD) in alleviating the pulmonary albumin leakage caused by endotoxemia in severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) rats. Rats models of SAP endotoxemia-induced acute lung injury were established, the studies in vivo provided the important evidences that the therapy of CQCQD significantly ameliorated the increases in plasma levels of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), sCd14, and Lbp, the elevation of serum amylase level, the enhancements of systemic and pulmonary albumin leakage, and the depravation of airways indicators, thus improving respiratory dysfunction and also pancreatic and pulmonary histopathological changes. According to the analyses of rats pulmonary tissue microarray and protein-protein interaction network, c-Fos, c-Src, and p85α were predicted as the target proteins for CQCQD in alleviating pulmonary albumin leakage. To confirm these predictions, human umbilical vein endothelial cells were employed in in vitro studies, which provide the evidences that (1) LPS-induced paracellular leakage and proinflammatory cytokines release were suppressed by pretreatment with inhibitors of c-Src (PP1) or PI3K (LY294002) or by transfection with siRNAs of c-Fos; (2) fortunately, CQCQD imitated the actions of these selective inhibitions agents to inhibit LPS-induced high expressions of p-Src, p-p85α, and c-Fos, therefore attenuating paracellular leakage and proinflammatory cytokines release.

Anti-fibro-hepatocarcinogenic Chinese herbal medicines: A mechanistic overview

Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) is an integral component of complementary/alternative medicine and it is increasingly becoming the preferred therapeutic modality for the treatment of liver fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) worldwide. Accordingly, the World Health Organization (WHO) has attested to the popularity and efficacy of indigenous herbal therapies including CHM as a first line of treatment for some diseases including liver disorders. However, the WHO and drug discovery experts have always recommended that use of indigenous herbal remedies must go hand-in-hand with the requisite mechanistic elucidation so as to constitute a system of verification of efficacy within the ethnobotanical context of use. Although many CHM experts have advanced knowledge on CHM, nonetheless, more enlightenment is needed, particularly mechanisms of action of CHMs on fibro-hepato-carcinogenesis. We, herein, provide in-depth mechanisms of the action of CHMs which have demonstrated anti-fibro-hepatocarcinogenic effects, in pre-clinical and clinical studies as published in PubMed and other major scientific databases. Specifically, the review brings out the important signaling pathways, and their downstream targets which are modulated at multi-level by various anti-fibro-hepatocarcinogenic CHMs.

Baicalein pretreatment reduces liver ischemia/reperfusion injury via induction of autophagy in rats

We previously demonstrated that baicalein could protect against liver ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in mice. The exact mechanism of baicalein remains poorly understood. Autophagy plays an important role in protecting against I/R injury. This study was designed to determine whether baicalein could protect against liver I/R injury via induction of autophagy in rats. Baicalein was intraperitoneally injected 1 h before warm ischemia. Pretreatment with baicalein prior to I/R insult significantly blunted I/R-induced elevations of serum aminotransferase levels and significantly improved the histological status of livers. Electron microscopy and expression of the autophagic marker LC3B-II suggested induction of autophagy after baicalein treatment. Moreover, inhibition of the baicalein-induced autophagy using 3-methyladenine (3-MA) worsened liver injury. Furthermore, baicalein treatment increased heme oxygenase (HO)-1 expression, and pharmacological inhibition of HO-1 with tin protoporphyrin IX (SnPP) abolished the baicalein-mediated autophagy and the hepatocellular protection. In primary rat hepatocytes, baicalein-induced autophagy also protected hepatocytes from hypoxia/reoxygenation injury in vitro and the beneficial effect was abrogated by 3-MA or Atg7 siRNA, respectively. Suppression of HO-1 activity by SnPP or HO-1 siRNA prevented the baicalein-mediated autophagy and resulted in increased hepatocellular injury. Collectively, these results suggest that baicalein prevents hepatocellular injury via induction of HO-1-mediated autophagy.

Baicalein exhibits anti-inflammatory effects via inhibition of NF-κB transactivation

NF-κB is a crucial mediator of inflammatory and immune responses and a number of phytochemicals that can suppress this immune-regulatory transcription factor are known to have promising anti-inflammatory potential. However, we report that inducer of pro-inflammatory transcription factor NF-κB functions as an anti-inflammatory agent. Our findings reveal that a plant derived flavonoid baicalein could suppress mitogen induced T cell activation, proliferation and cytokine secretion. Treatment of CD4+ T cells with baicalein prior to transfer in to lymphopenic allogenic host significantly suppressed graft versus host disease. Interestingly, addition of baicalein to murine splenic lymphocytes induced DNA binding of NF-κB but did not suppress Concanavalin A induced NF-κB. Since baicalein did not inhibit NF-κB binding to DNA, we hypothesized that baicalein may be suppressing NF-κB trans-activation. Thioredoxin system is implicated in the regulation of NF-κB trans-activation potential and therefore inhibition of thioredoxin system may be responsible for suppression of NF-κB dependent genes. Baicalein not only inhibited TrxR activity in cell free system but also suppressed mitogen induced thioredoxin activity in the nuclear compartment of lymphocytes. Similar to baicalein, pharmacological inhibitors of thioredoxin system also could suppress mitogen induced T cell proliferation without inhibiting DNA binding of NF-κB. Further, activation of cellular thioredoxin system by the use of pharmacological activator or over-expression of thioredoxin could abrogate the anti-inflammatory action of baicalein. We propose a novel strategy using baicalein to limit NF-κB dependent inflammatory responses via inhibition of thioredoxin system.

Latest research progress in the correlation between baicalein and breast cancer invasion and metastasis

Breast cancer is one of the most commonly occurring female malignant tumors. According to the 2012 GLOBOCAN statistics, produced by the International Agency for Research On Cancer ('IARC'), nearly 1.7 million women were diagnosed with breast cancer, with 522,000 related deaths: An increase in the incidence of breast cancer and associated mortality by nearly 18% from 2008. Metastasis is the final step in breast cancer progression, and represents the most common cause of mortality in patients with breast cancer. Therefore, a search for low-toxicity, safe and effective anti-breast cancer drugs in the form of natural compounds has become an intense focus of research. Baicalein, a widely used Chinese herbal medicine, has extensive antitumor activity. The present review briefly describes the research that has been performed on the association between baicalein and breast cancer metastasis, and further illustrates the influence of baicalein on the underlying mechanisms of breast cancer metastasis, adding a novel theory basis for baicalein antitumor research. In conclusion, baicalein may represent a promising target for the prevention and therapy of breast cancer.

Current Status of Herbal Medicines in Chronic Liver Disease Therapy: The Biological Effects, Molecular Targets and Future Prospects

Chronic liver dysfunction or injury is a serious health problem worldwide. Chronic liver disease involves a wide range of liver pathologies that include fatty liver, hepatitis, fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. The efficiency of current synthetic agents in treating chronic liver disease is not satisfactory and they have undesirable side effects. Thereby, numerous medicinal herbs and phytochemicals have been investigated as complementary and alternative treatments for chronic liver diseases. Since some herbal products have already been used for the management of liver diseases in some countries or regions, a systematic review on these herbal medicines for chronic liver disease is urgently needed. Herein, we conducted a review describing the potential role, pharmacological studies and molecular mechanisms of several commonly used medicinal herbs and phytochemicals for chronic liver diseases treatment. Their potential toxicity and side effects were also discussed. Several herbal formulae and their biological effects in chronic liver disease treatment as well as the underlying molecular mechanisms are also summarized in this paper. This review article is a comprehensive and systematic analysis of our current knowledge of the conventional medicinal herbs and phytochemicals in treating chronic liver diseases and on the potential pitfalls which need to be addressed in future study.

Probiotic Lactobacillus casei Zhang reduces pro-inflammatory cytokine production and hepatic inflammation in a rat model of acute liver failure

PURPOSE

In this study, we sought to find the effects and mechanisms of probiotic Lactobacillus casei Zhang (L. casei Zhang) on the pro-inflammatory cytokine production and hepatic inflammatory response in a rat model of acute liver failure induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and d-galactosamine (GalN).

METHODS

Male Wistar rats were orally administrated with or without L. casei Zhang for 30 days prior to challenge with LPS and GalN. Dexamethasone administrated group serving as a positive anti-inflammation control. Serum, intestinal and liver samples were collected 8 h after LPS/GalN challenge for histological, molecular and biochemical analysis.

RESULTS

LPS/GalN challenge alone resulted in significantly increased production of endotoxin, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) and nitric oxide as compared to the normal control rats. Pretreatment with L. casei Zhang not only reduced these changes, but also attenuated hepatic inflammation as shown by improved histological assessment, decreased myeloperoxidase activity and reduced expression of IL-1β and inducible nitric oxide synthase in the liver. L. casei Zhang supplementation significantly inhibited LPS/GalN-triggered phosphorylation of ERK, JNK and p-38 MAPK, but increased the expression of TLR2, TLR9 and PPAR-γ. Moreover, L. casei Zhang treatment prevented intestinal injury and modulated the intestinal ecology by increasing the fecal Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Probiotic L. casei Zhang reduces LPS/GalN-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine and hepatic inflammation through modulating the TLR-MAPK-PPAR-γ signaling pathways and intestinal microbiota.

Modulation of nitric oxide by flavonoids

One of the main mechanisms by which dietary flavonoids are thought to influence cardiovascular disease is via protection of the bioactivity of the endothelium-derived nitric oxide (NO). Additionally, flavonoids may also interfere with the signalling cascades of inflammation and prevent overproduction of NO and its deleterious consequences in shock and ischemia-reperfusion injury. In the present paper we review the evidence of the effects of flavonoids on NO. Flavonoids exert complex actions on the synthesis and bioavailability of NO which may result both in enhanced or decreased NO levels: (1) in cell free systems, several flavonoids may scavenge NO via its pro-oxidant properties by increasing superoxide. However, under conditions of oxidative stress, flavonoids may also protect NO from superoxide-driven inactivation. (2) In intact healthy tissues, some flavonoids increase eNOS activity in endothelial cells. Paradoxically this effect involves a pro-oxidant effect which results in Ca(2+)-dependent activation of eNOS. As inhibitors of PI3K, flavonoids may potentially inhibit the PI3K/Akt-dependent activation of eNOS. (3) Under conditions of inflammation and oxidative stress, flavonoids may prevent the inflammatory signalling cascades via inhibition of NFκB and thereby downregulate iNOS. On the other hand, they also prevent the overexpression of ROS generating enzymes, reducing superoxide and peroxynitrite levels, and hence preventing superoxide-induced NO inactivation and eNOS uncoupling. Therefore, the final effect of flavonoids on NO levels will depend on the flavonoid structure and the concentrations used, on the cell type under study and particularly on the presence of inflammatory/oxidative conditions.

Employment of digital gene expression profiling to identify potential pathogenic and therapeutic targets of fulminant hepatic failure

Background

The dysregulated cytokine metabolism and activity are crucial to the development of fulminant hepatic failure (FHF), and many different cytokines have been identified. However, the precise gene expression profile and their interactions association with FHF are yet to be further elucidated.

Methods

In this study, we detected the digital gene expression profile (DGEP) by high-throughput sequencing in normal and FHF mouse liver, and the candidate genes and potential targets for FHF therapy were verified. And the FHF mouse model was induced by D-Galactosamine (GalN)/lipopolysaccharide (LPS).

Results

Totally 12727 genes were detected, and 3551 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were obtained from RNA-seq data in FHF mouse liver. In FHF mouse liver, many of those DEGs were identified as differentially expressed in metabolic process, biosynthetic process, response to stimulus and response to stress, etc. Similarly, pathway enrichment analysis in FHF mouse liver showed that many significantly DEGs were also enriched in metabolic pathways, apoptosis, chemokine signaling pathways, etc. Considering the important role of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) in metabolic regulation and delicate balance between cell survival and death, several DEGs involved in NF-κB pathway were selected for experimental validation. As compared to normal control, NF-κBp65 and its inhibitory protein IκBα were both significantly increased, and NF-κB targeted genes including tumor necrosis factor α(TNFα), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), interleukin-1β, chemokines CCL3 and CCL4 were also increased in hepatic tissues of FHF. In addition, after NF-κB was successfully pre-blocked, there were significant alteration of hepatic pathological damage and mortality of FHF mouse model.

Conclusions

This study provides the globe gene expression profile of FHF mouse liver, and demonstrates the possibility of NF-κB gene as a potential therapeutic target for FHF.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12967-015-0380-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Evaluation of the effectiveness of Piper cubeba extract in the amelioration of CCl4-induced liver injuries and oxidative damage in the rodent model

Background. Liver diseases still represent a major health burden worldwide. Moreover, medicinal plants have gained popularity in the treatment of several diseases including liver. Thus, the present study was to evaluate the effectiveness of Piper cubeba fruits in the amelioration of CCl₄-induced liver injuries and oxidative damage in the rodent model. Methods. Hepatoprotective activity was assessed using various biochemical parameters like SGOT, SGPT, γ-GGT, ALP, total bilirubin, LDH, and total protein. Meanwhile, in vivo antioxidant activities as LPO, NP-SH, and CAT were measured in rat liver as well as mRNA expression of cytokines such as TNFα, IL-6, and IL-10 and stress related genes iNOS and HO-1 were determined by RT-PCR. The extent of liver damage was also analyzed through histopathological observations. Results. Treatment with PCEE significantly and dose dependently prevented drug induced increase in serum levels of hepatic enzymes. Furthermore, PCEE significantly reduced the lipid peroxidation in the liver tissue and restored activities of defense antioxidant enzymes NP-SH and CAT towards normal levels. The administration of PCEE significantly downregulated the CCl₄-induced proinflammatory cytokines TNFα and IL-6 mRNA expression in dose dependent manner, while it upregulated the IL-10 and induced hepatoprotective effect by downregulating mRNA expression of iNOS and HO-1 gene.

Thymoquinone, a bioactive component of Nigella sativa Linn seeds or traditional spice, attenuates acute hepatic failure and blocks apoptosis via the MAPK signaling pathway in mice

This study is the first report on hepatoprotective effect of thymoquinone induced byd-GalN/LPS. Thymoquinone alleviated the progress ofd-GalN/LPS induced acute hepatic failure via attenuating hepatocytes apoptosis and MAPK signaling pathway.

Baicalein protects against polymicrobial sepsis-induced liver injury via inhibition of inflammation and apoptosis in mice

Liver dysfunction has been known to occur frequently in cases of sepsis. Baicalein, the main active ingredient of the Scutellaria root, exerts anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic properties in endotoxic shock. However, the role of baicalein in polymicrobial sepsis-induced liver injury and its regulatory mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we aimed to investigate the protective effects of baicalein on polymicrobial sepsis-induced liver injury and to explore the possible mechanisms. Polymicrobial sepsis was induced by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) in C57BL/6 mice. Mice were treated with baicalein (100mg/kg, i.p) at 1h, 6h and 12h following CLP. Baicalein significantly improved the survival of septic mice. Treatment with baicalein ameliorated the CLP-induced liver injury, as indicated by the lower serum aminotransferase levels and the fewer histopathologic abnormalities. Baicalein reduced the neutrophil infiltration and the hepatic inflammatory cytokine expression and release. It also decreased the hepatic and the serum high-mobility group box 1 and macrophage migration inhibitory factor levels in septic mice. Moreover, baicalein significantly inhibited the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) activation and suppressed the transcriptional activity of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB). In conclusion, these results suggest that baicalein treatment could protect against the sepsis-induced liver injury, and improve the survival of mice with polymicrobial sepsis. The mechanism of the protective action of baicalein seems to involve its ability to reduce inflammatory response, to inhibit hepatic apoptosis, and to suppress MAPKs and NF-κB activation.

Baicalein ameliorates inflammatory-related apoptotic and catabolic phenotypes in human chondrocytes

Osteoarthritis (OA), characterized by progressive destruction of articular cartilage, is the most common form of human arthritis and a major concern for aging societies worldwide. In OA, pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α can trigger the caspase cascade to promote apoptosis and activate NF-κB to induce catabolic factors in chondrocytes. Here, the anti-apoptotic and anti-catabolic effects of baicalein on human OA chondrocytes treated by a mixture of IL-1β and TNF-α (IT) were investigated in vitro. In cultured chondrocytes, baicalein pretreatment attenuated apoptosis in a concentration-dependent manner in response to IT stimulation. Mechanistically, the anti-apoptotic effects of baicalein result from inhibition of nitric oxide production and downstream caspase signaling pathway. Moreover, administration of baicalein significantly reduced matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 3 and MMP13 secretion in chondrocytes stimulated with IT. The anti-catabolic effects of baicalein were further demonstrated by the recovery of the glycosaminoglycan and type II collagen (COLII) deposition by histological analysis in IT-treated mouse articular cartilage explants. These findings suggest that baicalein might be a promising novel therapeutic agent for OA by virtue of its suppression of apoptosis and MMP secretion in OA chondrocytes.

Baicalein, an active component of Scutellaria baicalensis, protects against lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Baicalein (BE), a phenolic flavonoid extracted mainly from the root of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, a Chinese herb, is traditionally used in oriental medicine. Several studies have demonstrated that BE exerts many beneficial effects including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. However, its effect on acute lung injury (ALI) and the molecular mechanisms involved remain unclear and warrant further investigation. The aim of the study is to investigate whether BE improves lipopolysaccharide (LPS, intratracheally, i.t.)-induced ALI in rats, and further study the underlying mechanisms of its activity.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Rats were administrated with LPS (5mg/kg/body weight, i.t.) through a 24-gauge catheter to establish the ALI model. The effects of BE on the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, nitrite/nitrate in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and the expression of nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) activation as well as the histopathological changes were evaluated.

RESULTS

Results showed that BE (20mg/kg, i.p.) treatment markedly attenuated LPS-induced lung edema, elevation of the levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, CINC-3, and nitrite/nitrate in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid accompanied by a remarkable improvement of lung histopathological symptoms. The LPS-enhanced inflammatory cell infiltration and myeloperoxidase activity, O2(-) formation and the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and nitrotyrosin in lungs were all attenuated by BE. Notably, BE could augment Nrf2/HO-1 cascade, but inhibited NF-κB activation in LPS-instilled lungs that was strongly reversed by blocking HO-1 activity.

CONCLUSION

This study is the first to demonstrate that BE protects against LPS-induced ALI in rats. The underlying mechanisms may include inhibition of NF-κB-mediated inflammatory responses and upregulation of Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, which ultimately alleviates the pathological symptoms of ALI.

BRP, a polysaccharide fraction isolated from Boschniakia rossica, protects against galactosamine and lipopolysaccharide induced hepatic failure in mice

The aim of this study was to investigate the hepatoprotective effect of BRP, a polysaccharide fraction isolated from Boschniakia rossica, against galactosamine and lipopolysaccharide induced fulminant hepatic failure. Mice were injected with a single dose of galactosamine/lipopolysaccharide with or without pretreatment of BRP. Results showed marked reduction of hepatic necrosis, serum marker enzymes and levels of tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 in BRP pretreated mice when compared with galactosamine/lipopolysaccharide-challenged mice. Mice pretreated with BRP decreased the activation of caspases-3 and caspase-8, and showed a reduced level of DNA fragmentation of liver cells. BRP also reduced hepatic lipid peroxidation, increased potential of hepatic antioxidative defense system, and reduced hepatic nitric oxide level which was elevated by galactosamine/lipopolysaccharide injection. Immunoblot analysis showed down-regulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 proteins of liver tissues in BRP pretreated group when compared with galactosamine/lipopolysaccharide-challenged group. Furthermore, treatment with galactosamine/lipopolysaccharide markedly increased toll-like receptor 4, nuclear level of nuclear factor-κB, and phosphorylation of both extracellular signal-regulated kinase and c-Jun N-terminal kinase in liver tissues. However, these increases were attenuated by pretreatment with BRP. The results suggest that BRP alleviates galactosamine/lipopolysaccharide-induced liver injury by enhancing antioxidative defense system, suppressing inflammatory responses and reducing apoptotic signaling.

Cordyceps sinensisPrevents Apoptosis in Mouse Liver with D-Galactosamine/Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Fulminant Hepatic Failure

Cordyceps sinensis (C. sinensis) has long been considered to be an herbal medicine and has been used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases. The present study examined the cytoprotective properties of C. sinensis on D(+)-galactosamine (GalN)/lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced fulminant hepatic failure. Mice were randomly assigned into control, GalN/LPS, CS 20 mg and CS 40 mg groups (C. sinensis, oral gavage, five days/week, four weeks). After receiving saline or C. sinensis, mice were intraperitoneally given GalN (800 mg/kg)/LPS (10 μg/kg). The effects of C. sinensis on TNF-α, IL-10, AST, NO, SOD, and apoptoticrelated proteins after the onset of endotoxin intoxication were determined. Data demonstrated that GalN/LPS increased hepatocyte degeneration, circulating AST, TNF-α, IL-10, and hepatic apoptosis and caspase activity. C. sinensis pre-treatment reduced AST, TNF-α, and NO and increased IL-10 and SOD in GalN/LPS induced fulminant hepatic failure. C. sinensis attenuated the apoptosis of hepatocytes, as evidenced by the TUNEL and capase-3, 6 activity analyses. In summary, C. sinensis alleviates GalN/LPS-induced liver injury by modulating the cytokine response and inhibiting apoptosis. C. sinensis could be used as a potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic agent to reduce liver injury after the onset of sepsis.

Oroxylin A accelerates liver regeneration in CCl₄-induced acute liver injury mice

Introduction

Based on the previous research that oroxylin A can suppress inflammation, we investigated the hepatoprotective role of oroxylin A against CCl₄-induced liver damage in mice and then studied the possible alteration of the activities of cytokine signaling participating in liver regeneration. Wild type (WT) mice were orally administrated with oroxylin A (60 mg/kg) for 4 days after CCl₄ injection, the anti-inflammatory effects of oroxylin A were assessed directly by hepatic histology and indirectly by measuring serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and Albumin. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) staining was performed to evaluate the role of oroxylin A in promoting hepatocyte proliferation. Serum IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1Ra levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and liver HGF, EGF, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1Ra and IL-1β gene expression was determined by quantitative real-time PCR. The data indicated that the IL-6 and TNF-α mRNA of oroxylin A administered group significantly increased higher than the control within 12 hours after CCl₄ treatment. Meanwhile, oroxylin A significantly enhanced the expression of IL-1Ra at the early phase, which indicated that oroxylin A could facilitate the initiating events in liver regeneration by increasing IL-1Ra which acts as an Acute-Phase Protein (APP). In addition, a lethal CCl₄-induced acute liver failure model offers a survival benefit in oroxylin A treated WT mice. However, oroxylin A could not significantly improve the percent survival of IL-1RI^−/− mice with a lethal CCl₄-induced acute liver failure.

Conclusions

Our study confirmed that oroxylin A could strongly promote liver structural remodeling and functional recovery through IL-1Ra/IL-1RI signaling pathway. All these results support the possibility of oroxylin A being a therapeutic candidate for acute liver injury.

Hepatoprotective effects of baicalein against CCl4-induced acute liver injury in mice

AIM: To investigate the hepatoprotective effect of baicalein against carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced liver damage in mice.

METHODS: Mice were orally administered with baicalein after CCl₄ injection, and therapeutic baicalein was given twice a day for 4 d. The anti-inflammation effects of baicalein were assessed directly by hepatic histology and serum alanine aminotranferease and aspartate aminotransferase measurement. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen was used to evaluate the effect of baicalein in promoting hepatocyte proliferation. Serum interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and liver IL-6, TNF-α, transforming growth factor-α (TGF-α), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and epidermal growth factor (EGF) genes expression were determined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS: CCl₄-induced acute liver failure model offers a survival benefit in baicalein-treated mice. The data indicated that the mRNA levels of IL-6 and TNF-α significantly increased within 12 h after CCl₄ treatment in baicalein administration groups, but at 24, 48 and 72 h, the expression of IL-6 and TNF-α was kept at lower levels compared with the control. The expression of TGF-α, HGF and EGF was enhanced dramatically in baicalein administration group at 12, 24, 48 and 72 h. Furthermore, we found that baicalein significantly elevated the serum level of TNF-α and IL-6 at the early phase, which indicated that baicalein could facilitate the initiating events in liver regeneration.

CONCLUSION: Baicalein may be a therapeutic candidate for acute liver injury. Baicalein accelerates liver regeneration by regulating TNF-α and IL-6 mediated pathways.

Alleviation of gut inflammation by Cdx2/Pxr pathway in a mouse model of chemical colitis

Pregnane X Receptor (PXR), a master regulator of drug metabolism and inflammation, is abundantly expressed in the gastrointestinal tract. Baicalein and its O-glucuronide baicalin are potent anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer herbal flavonoids that undergo a complex cycle of interconversion in the liver and gut. We sought to investigate the role these flavonoids play in inhibiting gut inflammation by an axis involving PXR and other potential factors. The consequences of PXR regulation and activation by the herbal flavonoids, baicalein and baicalin were evaluated in vitro in human colon carcinoma cells and in vivo using wild-type, Pxr-null, and humanized (hPXR) PXR mice. Baicalein, but not its glucuronidated metabolite baicalin, activates PXR in a Cdx2-dependent manner in vitro, in human colon carcinoma LS174T cells, and in the murine colon in vivo. While both flavonoids abrogate dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-mediated colon inflammation in vivo, oral delivery of a potent bacterial β-glucuronidase inhibitor eliminates baicalin’s effect on gastrointestinal inflammation by preventing the microbial conversion of baicalin to baicalien. Finally, reduction of gastrointestinal inflammation requires the binding of Cdx2 to a specific proximal site on the PXR promoter. Pharmacological targeting of intestinal PXR using natural metabolically labile ligands could serve as effective and potent therapeutics for gut inflammation that avert systemic drug interactions.