Antimetastatic effect and mechanism of ovatodiolide in MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells

Ovatodiolide and antrocin synergistically inhibit the stemness and metastatic potential of hepatocellular carcinoma via impairing ribosome biogenesis and modulating ERK/Akt-mTOR signaling axis

Activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and PI3K signaling confers resistance against sorafenib, a mainstay treatment for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Antrocin and ovatodiolide constitute as the most potent secondary metabolites isolated from Antrodia camphorata and Anisomeles indica, respectively. Both natural compounds have recently gained a lot of attention due to their putative inhibition of MAPK and PI3K signaling in various solid cancers. However, whether their combination is effective in HCC remains unknown. Here, we investigated their effect, alone or in various combinations, on MAPK and PI3K signaling pathways in HCC cells. An array of in vitro study were used to investigate anticancer and stemness effects to treat HCC, such as cytotoxicity, drug combination index, migration, invasion, colony formation, and tumor sphere formation. Drug effect in vivo was evaluated using mouse xenograft models. In this study, antrocin and ovatodiolide synergistically inhibited the SNU387, Hep3B, Mahlavu, and Huh7 cell lines. Sequential combination treatment of Huh7 and Mahlavu with ovatodiolide followed by antrocin resulted stronger cytotoxic effect than did treatment with antrocin followed by ovatodiolide, their simultaneous administration, antrocin alone, or ovatodiolide alone. In the Huh7 and Mahlavu cell lines, ovatodiolide→antrocin significantly suppressed colony formation and proliferation as well as markedly downregulated ERK1/2, Akt, and mTOR expression. Inhibition of ERK1/2 and Akt/mTOR signaling by ovatodiolide→antrocin suppressed ribosomal biogenesis, autophagy, and cancer stem cell-like phenotypes and promoted apoptosis in Huh7 and Mahlavu cells. The sorafenib-resistant clone of Huh7 was effectively inhibited by synergistic combination of both compound in vitro. Eventually, the ovatodiolide→antrocin combination synergistically suppressed the growth of HCC xenografts. Taken together, our findings suggested that ovatodiolide→antrocin combination may represent potential therapeutic approach for patients with advanced HCC.

Gastroprotective Effect of Anisomeles indica on Aspirin-Induced Gastric Ulcer in Mice

Gastric ulcers are commonly seen in the upper gastrointestinal tract and may be related to the Helicobacter pylori infection and the use of aspirin, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). Typically, proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs) are used to treat gastric ulcers; however, adverse effects have emerged following long-term treatment. Natural medicines are used as alternative therapeutic agents in the treatment of gastric ulcers, with few side effects. Despite various reports on the anti-H. pylori and anti-gastric cancer activities of Anisomeles indica, its gastroprotective effect on ulcers remains undetermined. This study investigated the protective effect of A. indica on aspirin-induced gastric ulcers in murine models. Our results show that three fractions of ethanol-extracted A. indica inhibited aspirin-induced gastric injury. Among these, A. indica Fraction 1 was observed to enrich ovatodiolide, which effectively diminished gastric acidity and alleviated aspirin-induced inflammation in the stomach. Our results provide evidence that A. indica could be developed as an effective therapeutic agent for gastroprotective purposes.

Cytotoxicity of synthetic derivatives against breast cancer and multi-drug resistant breast cancer cell lines: a literature-based perspective study

Cancer is the second most killer worldwide causing millions of people to lose their lives every year. In the case of women, breast cancer takes away the highest proportion of mortality rate than other cancers. Due to the mutation and resistance-building capacity of different breast cancer cell lines against conventional therapies, this death rate is on the verge of growth. New effective therapeutic compounds and treatment method is the best way to look out for in this critical time. For instance, new synthetic derivatives/ analogues synthesized from different compounds can be a ray of hope. Numerous synthetic compounds have been seen enhancing the apoptosis and autophagic pathway that directly exerts cytotoxicity towards different breast cancer cell lines. To cease the ever-growing resistance of multi-drug resistant cells against anti-breast cancer drugs (Doxorubicin, verapamil, tamoxifen) synthetic compounds may play a vital role by increasing effectivity, showing synergistic action. Many recent and previous studies have reported that synthetic derivatives hold potentials as an effective anti-breast cancer agent as they show great cytotoxicity towards cancer cells, thus can be used even vastly in the future in the field of breast cancer treatment. This review aims to identify the anti-breast cancer properties of several synthetic derivatives against different breast cancer and multi-drug-resistant breast cancer cell lines with their reported mechanism of action and effectivity.

Toxicity and Anti-Proliferative Properties of Anisomeles indica Ethanol Extract on Cervical Cancer HeLa Cells and Zebrafish Embryos

In this study, we showed that crude extract of Anisomeles indica (AI-EtE) expressed its toxicity to HeLa cells with an IC50 dose of 38.8 µg/mL and to zebrafish embryos with malformations, lethality and hatching inhibition at 72-hpf at doses higher than 75 µg/mL. More interestingly, flow cytometry revealed that AI-EtE significantly promoted the number of cells entering apoptotic. Accordingly, the transcript levels of BAX, CASPASE-8, and CASPASE-3 in the cells treated with AI-EtE at IC50 dose were 1.55-, 1.62-, and 2.45-fold higher than those in the control cells, respectively. Moreover, treatment with AI-EtE caused cell cycle arrest at the G1 phase in a p53-independent manner. Particularly, percentages of AI-EtE-treated cells in G1, S, G2/M were, respectively 85%, 6.7% and 6.4%; while percentages of control cells in G1, S, G2/M were 64%, 15% and 19%, respectively. Consistent with cell cycle arrest, the expressions of CDKN1A and CDNK2A in AI-EtE-treated cells were up-regulated 1.9- and 1.64-fold, respectively. Significantly, treatment with AI-EtE also decreased anchorage-independent growth of HeLa cells. In conclusion, we suggest that Anisomeles indica can be considered as a medicinal plant with a possible use against cervical cancer cells; however, the used dose should be carefully monitored, especially when applying to pregnant women.

Ovatodiolide inhibits the oncogenicity and cancer stem cell-like phenotype of glioblastoma cells, as well as potentiate the anticancer effect of temozolomide

BACKGROUND

Ovatodiolide (Ova), a major bioactive diterpenoid isolate of Anisomeles indica has drawn considerable attention lately as an effective anticancer agent with several published works demonstrating its tumor-inhibitory activity in various cancer types.

PURPOSE

In this study, we examined the modulatory effect of Ova on the oncogenicity, proliferation, and cancer stem cell-like traits of glioblastoma (GBM) cells, as well as investigated the underlying molecular mechanism for the anticancer activity of Ova in GBM cell lines, U-87MG and GBM8401.

METHODS

The antiproliferative, apoptotic, and stemness-attenuating effects of Ova were evaluated using the sulforhodamine B (SRB) colorimetric assay, western blot and fluorescent immunocytochemistry. Cell apoptosis was analyzed based on variation in the expression levels of Bcl-2 family of regulator proteins Bax, Bak, Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL.

RESULTS

Ova induced the apoptosis of the U-87MG and GBM8401 cells, as well as effectively inhibited the proliferation and motility of the GBM cell lines in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Ova-induced apoptosis correlated with increased Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, while inhibition of tumor cell migration and colony formation was associated with reduced Slug, Vimentin, NCadherin and β-catenin protein expression and increased E-Cadherin. In addition, exposure to Ova inhibited tumorsphere formation, elicited downregulation of CD44, CD133, Sox2, and Oct4, as well as correlated with dysregulation of the JAK2-STAT3 signaling pathway. Furthermore, we showed for the first time to the best of our knowledge that Ova potentiate the chemotherapeutic effect of Temozolomide.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, our findings demonstrate the anticancer potential of Ova in GBM and its efficacy in the treatment of GBM as monotherapy and in combination with Temozolomide.

A new macrocyclic diterpenoid from Anisomeles indica

A new macrocyclic diterpenoid, 4β,5β-dihydroxyovatodiolide (1), together with twenty-two known compounds (2-23) were isolated from the MeOH extract of the dried aerial parts of Anisomeles indica (L.) O. Kuntze (Labiatae). The structure of 1 was established on the basis of spectral evidence. Phenylethanoids, acteoside (5) and isoacteoside (6) showed significant inhibitory to IL-2 secretion of with respect to phorbol myristate acetate and anti-CD28 monoclonal antibody co-stimulated activation of human peripheral blood T cells.

Antibacterial activity of ovatodiolide isolated from Anisomeles indica against Helicobacter pylori

Helicobacter pylori infection is associated with high incidence of gastric diseases. The extensive therapy of H. pylori infection with antibiotics has increased its resistance rates worldwide. Ovatodiolide, a pure constituent isolated from Anisomeles indica, has been demonstrated to possess bactericidal activity against H. pylori. In this study, ovatodiolide inhibited the growth of both H. pylori reference strain and clinical multidrug-resistant isolates. Docking analysis revealed that ovatodiolide fits into the hydrophobic pocket of a ribosomal protein, RpsB. Furthermore, ovatodiolide inhibited bacterial growth by reducing levels of RpsB, which plays a crucial role in protein translation. Our results demonstrate that ovatodiolide binds to a ribosomal protein and interferes with protein synthesis. This study provides evidence that ovatodiolide has the potential to be developed into a potent therapeutic agent for treating H. pylori infection.

Cytotoxicity of eupatorin in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells via cell cycle arrest, anti-angiogenesis and induction of apoptosis

Eupatorin has been reported with in vitro cytotoxic effect on several human cancer cells. However, reports on the mode of action and detail mechanism of eupatorin in vitro in breast cancer disease are limited. Hence, eupatorin's effect on the human breast carcinoma cell line MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 was investigated. MTT assay showed that eupatorin had cytotoxic effects on MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells but was non-toxic to the normal cells of MCF-10a in a time-dose dependent manner. At 24 h, the eupatorin showed mild cytotoxicity on both MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells with IC50 values higher than 20 μg/mL. After 48 h, eupatorin at 5 μg/mL inhibited the proliferation of MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells by 50% while the IC50 of MCF-10a was significantly (p < 0.05) high with 30 μg/mL. The concentration of eupatorin at 5 μg/mL induced apoptosis mainly through intrinsic pathway by facilitating higher fold of caspase 9 compared to caspase 8 at 48 h. The cell cycle profile also showed that eupatorin (5 μg/mL) exerted anti-proliferation activity with the cell cycle arrest of MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells at sub Gθ/G1 in a time-dependent manner. In addition, wound healing assay showed an incomplete wound closure of scratched MDA-MB-231 cells, and more than 60% of the MDA-MB-231 cells were prevented to migrate and invade the membrane in the Boyden chamber after 24 h. Eupatorin also inhibited angiogenic sprouting of new blood vessels in ex vivo mouse aorta ring assay. In gene expression assay, eupatorin up-regulated pro-apoptotic genes such as Bak1, HIF1A, Bax, Bad, cytochrome c and SMAC/Diablo and blocked the Phospho-Akt pathway. In conclusion, eupatorin is a potent candidate to induce apoptosis and concurrently inhibit the invasion, migration and angiogenesis of MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cells through inhibition of Phospho-Akt pathway and cell cycle blockade.

Andrographolide enhances the anti-metastatic effect of radiation in Ras-transformed cells via suppression of ERK-mediated MMP-2 activity

BACKGROUND

Activation of Ras oncogene in human tumors is associated with radiation-associated metastatic potential. Although ionizing radiation is one important method of cancer treatments, it has been shown to enhance matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) activity and facilitates a more aggressive cancer phenotype. Our previous studies showed that andrographolide with lower dose rates of radiation could inhibit RAS-transformed cancer metastasis in vivo; however, the molecular mechanisms are not yet clear. In this study, we aimed to explore the anti-metastatic effect of andrographolide combined with radiation on Ras-transformed cells.

METHODS

RAS-transformed cells were treated with andrographolide in the presence or absence of irradiation (2-4 Gy) or angiotensin II to examine cell invasion. In vivo tumorigenesis assays were also performed. The MMP-2 activity was detected by using Gelatin zymography. Signal transduction of NF-κB subunit, p65 and phosphor-ERK 1/2, were examined by using Western blotting analysis.

RESULTS

Treatment with andrographolide inhibited migration of Ras-transformed cells. Andrographolide treatment with radiation significantly inhibited cancer metastasis in vivo. We found that andrographolide exhibited anti-migration and anti-invasive ability against cancer metastasis via inhibition of MMP2 activity rather than affected MMP-9 and EMT. In addition, combined andrographolide with radiation appeared to be more effective in reducing MMP-2 expression, and this effect was accompanied by suppression of ERK activation that inhibits cancer cell migration and invasion.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that andrographolide enhances the anti-metastatic effect of radiation in Ras-transformed cells via suppression of ERK-mediated MMP-2 activity.

Downregulation of Cancer Stemness by Novel Diterpenoid Ovatodiolide Inhibits Hepatic Cancer Stem Cell-Like Traits by Repressing Wnt/[Formula: see text]-Catenin Signaling

The hierarchical tumor propagation or cancer stem cells (CSCs) model of carcinogenesis postulates that like physiologic adult stem cell (ASC), the CSCs positioned at the apex of any tumor population form the crux of tumor evolution with a constitutive regenerative capacity and differentiation potential. The propagation and recurrence of the characteristically heterogeneous and therapy-resistant hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), adds to accumulating evidence to support this CSCs model. Based on the multi-etiologic basis of HCC formation which among others, focuses on the disruption of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway, this study evaluated the role of cembrane-type phytochemical, Ovatodiolide, in the modulation of the Wnt/[Formula: see text]-catenin pathway, and its subsequent effect on liver CSCs' activities. Our fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and quantitative RT-PCR analyses of side population (SP) indicated that CD133+ cells were [Formula: see text]-catenin-overexpressing, more aggressive, and resistant to the conventional anticancer agents, Cisplatin and Doxorubicin, when compared to [Formula: see text]-catenin-downregulated group. We demonstrated that marked upregulation of [Formula: see text]-catenin and its downstream targets effectively enhanced hepatosphere formation, with an associated induction of CD133, OCT4 and Sox2 expression and also caused an significant enhancement of HCC proliferation. However, treatment with Ovatodiolide induced downregulation of [Formula: see text]-catenin and its downstream effector genes, abolished hepatosphere formation and reversed the [Formula: see text]-catenin-associated enhancement of HCC growth. In summary, we demonstrated for the first time that Ovatodiolide suppressed the canonical Wnt signaling pathway, and inhibited the generation of liver CSCs; Thus, projecting Ovatodiolide as a putatively effective therapeutic agent for anti-HCC target therapy.

Ovatodiolide suppresses yes-associated protein 1-modulated cancer stem cell phenotypes in highly malignant hepatocellular carcinoma and sensitizes cancer cells to chemotherapy in vitro

The cancer stem cells (CSCs) theory recently became a focus of heightened attention in cancer biology, with the proposition that CSCs may constitute an important therapeutic target for effective anticancer therapy, because of their demonstrated role in tumor initiation, chemo-, and radio-resistance. Liver CSCs are a small subpopulation of poorly- or undifferentiated liver tumor cells, implicated in tumorigenesis, metastasis, resistance to therapy and disease relapse, enriched with and associated with the functional markers corresponding to the CSCs-enriched side population (SP), high aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) activity, and enhanced formation of in vitro liver CSCs models, referred to herein as hepatospheres. In this study, we found YAP1 was significantly expressed in the SP cells, as well as in generated hepatospheres compared to non-SP or parental HCC cells, at transcript and/or protein levels. In addition, downregulation of YAP1 expression levels by small molecule inhibitor and siRNA transfection, in the HCC cell lines, PLC/PRF/5 and Mahlavu, were associated with marked loss of ability to form hepatospheres and increased sensitivity to sorafenib. Consistent with the above, we demonstrated that YAP1 expression positively correlated with that of Sox2, Oct4, c-Myc and GRP78, markers of stemness and drug resistance. This is suggestive of YAP1's role as a modulator of cancer stemness, ER stress and chemoresistance. For the first time, we demonstrate that Ovatodiolide significantly attenuates YAP1 expression and subsequently suppressed YAP1-modulated CSCs phenotypes and associated disease progression, consistent with our previous finding in breast cancer. Taken together, our findings suggest that YAP1, highly expressed in malignant liver tumours, contributes to hepatocellular CSCs phenotype and is a molecular target of interest for CSCs targeted therapy in liver cancer patients.

Ovatodiolide suppresses allergic airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness in a murine model of asthma

Asthma, a complex pulmonary allergic disease, major therapy is applied of drugs to control the disease, but quickly recur after the drugs are stopped. In patients with severe asthma may show steroid resistance and would benefit from the development of novel therapeutic drugs. Ovatodiolide, a unique macrocyclic diterpenoid isolated from Anisomeles indica, showed therapeutic potential for the treatment of allergic asthma. As a model of allergic inflammation, we used ovalbumin (OVA)-immunized mice, which displayed T helper cell type 2 (T_H2) cytokine expression in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), as well as airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness (AHR). The results showed that ovatodiolide suppressed T_H2 activation, including cell proliferation and production of the T_H2 related cytokines, interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, IL-13, IL-33, eosinophil chemotactic protein (eotaxin), and also reduced airway hyperresponsiveness. In this study, ovatodiolide inhibited allergic asthma through downregulation of T_H2 responses in a murine model of asthma.

Semisynthetic oleanane triterpenoids inhibit migration and invasion of human breast cancer cells through downregulated expression of the ITGB1/PTK2/PXN pathway

This paper reports a study on the role of two synthetic derivatives of oleanolic acid (OA), HIMOXOL and Br-HIMOLID, in the regulation of cell migration and invasion and the underlying molecular mechanisms of breast cancer cells. The effect of the compounds on four breast cancer cell lines (MCF7, MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-468, and T-47D) and also on noncancerous breast cells, MCF-12A, was reported. The compounds had no effect on the migration of MCF-12A cells. However, both the derivatives revealed a higher cytotoxicity than the maternal compound OA, and in sub-cytotoxic concentrations, they decreased the migration of MCF7, MDA-MB-231, and MDA-MB-468 breast cancer cells and also the invasion of MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 cells; although, the derivatives had no effect on the migration and invasion of T-47D cells. Both the derivatives of OA inhibited the cell migratory and invasive abilities of breast cancer cells by downregulating the expressions of ITGB1, PTK2, and PXN genes and by decreasing the phosphorylation status and the level of its respective proteins (integrin β1, FAK, and paxillin, respectively). This study is the first to report the antimigratory and anti-invasive activities of HIMOXOL and Br-HIMOLID in breast cancer cells.

Ovatodiolide suppresses colon tumorigenesis and prevents polarization of M2 tumor-associated macrophages through YAP oncogenic pathways

Background

An increased expression of Yes-associated protein (YAP1) has been shown to promote tumorigenesis in many cancer types including colon. However, the role of YAP1 in promoting colon tumorigenesis remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that YAP1 expression is associated with M2 tumor-associated macrophage polarization and the generation of colon cancer stem-like cells. YAP1 downregulation by gene silencing or a phytochemical, ovatodiolide, not only suppresses colon cancer tumorigenesis but also prevents M2 TAM polarization.

Methods

Human monocytic cells, THP-1, and colon cancer cell lines, HCT116 and DLD-1, were co-cultured to mimic the interactions between tumor and its microenvironment. M2 polarization of the THP-1 cells were examined using both flow cytometry and q-PCR technique. The inhibition of YAP1 signaling was achieved by gene-silencing technique or ovatodiolide. The molecular consequences of YAP1 inhibition was demonstrated via colony formation, migration, and colon-sphere formation assays. 5-FU and ovatodiolide were used in drug combination studies. Xenograft and syngeneic mouse models were used to investigate the role of YAP1 in colon tumorigenesis and TAM generation.

Results

An increased YAP1 expression was found to be associated with a poor prognosis in patients with colon cancer using bioinformatics approach. We showed an increased YAP1 expression in the colon spheres, and colon cancer cells co-cultured with M2 TAMs. YAP1-silencing led to the concomitant decreased expression of major oncogenic pathways including Kras, mTOR, β-catenin, and M2-promoting IL-4 and tumor-promoting IL-6 cytokines. TAM co-cultured colon spheres showed a significantly higher tumor-initiating ability in vivo. Ovatodiolide treatment alone and in combination with 5-FU significantly suppressed in vivo tumorigenesis and less TAM infiltration in CT26 syngeneic mouse model.

Conclusions

We have identified the dual function of YAP1 where its suppression not only inhibited tumorigenesis but also prevented the generation of cancer stem-like cells and M2 TAM polarization. Ovatodiolide treatment suppressed YAP1 oncogenic pathways to inhibit colon tumorigenesis and M2 TAM generation both in vitro and in vivo. Ovatodiolide should be considered for its potential for adjuvant therapeutic development.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13045-017-0421-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Antioxidant Activity and ROS-Dependent Apoptotic Effect of Scurrula ferruginea (Jack) Danser Methanol Extract in Human Breast Cancer Cell MDA-MB-231

Scurrula ferruginea (Jack) Danser is one of the mistletoe species belonging to Loranthaceae family, which grows on the branches of many deciduous trees in tropical countries. This study evaluated the antioxidant activities of S. ferruginea extracts. The cytotoxic activity of the selected extracts, which showed potent antioxidant activities, and high phenolic and flavonoid contents, were investigated in human breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB-231) and non-cancer human skin fibroblast cells (HSF-1184). The activities and characteristics varied depending on the different parts of S. ferruginea, solvent polarity, and concentrations of extracts. The stem methanol extract showed the highest amount of both phenolic (273.51 ± 4.84 mg gallic acid/g extract) and flavonoid contents (163.41 ± 4.62 mg catechin/g extract) and strong DPPH• radical scavenging (IC50 = 27.81 μg/mL) and metal chelation activity (IC50 = 80.20 μg/mL). The stem aqueous extract showed the highest ABTS•+ scavenging ability. The stem methanol and aqueous extracts exhibited dose-dependent cytotoxic activity against MDA-MB-231 cells with IC50 of 19.27 and 50.35 μg/mL, respectively. Furthermore, the extracts inhibited the migration and colony formation of MDA-MB-231 cells in a concentration-dependent manner. Morphological observations revealed hallmark properties of apoptosis in treated cells. The methanol extract induced an increase in ROS generation and mitochondrial depolarization in MDA-MB-231 cells, suggesting its potent apoptotic activity. The present study demonstrated that the S. ferruginea methanol extract mediated MDA-MB-231 cell growth inhibition via induction of apoptosis which was confirmed by Western blot analysis. It may be a potential anticancer agent; however, its in vivo anticancer activity needs to be investigated.

Ovatodiolide Inhibits Breast Cancer Stem/Progenitor Cells through SMURF2-Mediated Downregulation of Hsp27

Cancer stem/progenitor cells (CSCs) are a subpopulation of cancer cells involved in tumor initiation, resistance to therapy and metastasis. Targeting CSCs has been considered as the key for successful cancer therapy. Ovatodiolide (Ova) is a macrocyclic diterpenoid compound isolated from Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze with anti-cancer activity. Here we used two human breast cancer cell lines (AS-B145 and BT-474) to examine the effect of Ova on breast CSCs. We first discovered that Ova displayed an anti-proliferation activity in these two breast cancer cells. Ova also inhibited the self-renewal capability of breast CSCs (BCSCs) which was determined by mammosphere assay. Ova dose-dependently downregulated the expression of stemness genes, octamer-binding transcription factor 4 (Oct4) and Nanog, as well as heat shock protein 27 (Hsp27), but upregulated SMAD ubiquitin regulatory factor 2 (SMURF2) in mammosphere cells derived from AS-B145 or BT-474. Overexpression of Hsp27 or knockdown of SMURF2 in AS-B145 cells diminished the therapeutic effect of ovatodiolide in the suppression of mammosphere formation. In summary, our data reveal that Ova displays an anti-CSC activity through SMURF2-mediated downregulation of Hsp27. Ova could be further developed as an anti-CSC agent in the treatment of breast cancer.

Inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-9 and nuclear factor kappa B contribute to melatonin prevention of motility and invasiveness in HepG2 liver cancer cells

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most lethal human cancers worldwide because of its high incidence and its metastatic potential. Extracellular matrix degradation by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) has been connected with cancer cell invasion, and it has been suggested that inhibition of MMPs by synthetic and natural inhibitors may be of great importance in the HCC therapies. Melatonin, the main product of the pineal gland, exerts antiproliferative, proapoptotic, and antiangiogenic properties in HepG2 human hepatocellular cells, and exhibits anti-invasive and antimetastatic activities by suppressing the enzymatic activity of MMP-9 in different tumor types. However, the underlying mechanism of anti-invasive activity in HCC models has not been fully elucidated. Here, we demonstrate that 1 mm melatonin dosage reduced in IL-1β-induced HepG2 cells MMP-9 gelatinase activity and inhibited cell invasion and motility through downregulation of MMP-9 gene expression and upregulation of the MMP-9-specific inhibitor tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMP)-1. No significant changes were observed in the expression and activity of MMP-2, the other proteinase implicated in matrix collagen degradation, and its tissue inhibitor, TIMP-2. Also, melatonin significantly suppressed IL-1β-induced nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) translocation and transcriptional activity. In summary, we demonstrate that melatonin modulates motility and invasiveness of HepG2 cell in vitro through a molecular mechanism that involves TIMP-1 upregulation and attenuation of MMP-9 expression and activity via NF-κB signal pathway inhibition.

Methyl 3-hydroxyimino-11-oxoolean-12-en-28-oate (HIMOXOL), a synthetic oleanolic acid derivative, induces both apoptosis and autophagy in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells

HIMOXOL (methyl 3-hydroxyimino-11-oxoolean-12-en-28-oate) is a synthetic derivative of oleanolic acid (OA). HIMOXOL revealed the highest cytotoxic effect among tested synthetic OA analogs. In this study we focused on elucidating the cytotoxic mechanism of HIMOXOL in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. HIMOXOL reduced MDA-MB-231 cell viability with an IC50 value of 21.08±0.24μM. In contrast to OA, the tested compound induced cell death by activating apoptosis and the autophagy pathways. More specifically, we found that HIMOXOL was able to activate the extrinsic apoptotic pathway, which was proven by observation of caspase-8, caspase-3 and PARP-1 protein activation in Western blot analysis. An increase in the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 protein levels was also detected. Moreover, HIMOXOL triggered microtubule-associated protein LC3-II expression and upregulated beclin 1. This observed compound activity was modulated by mitogen-activated protein kinases and NFκB/p53 signaling pathways. Together, these data suggest that HIMOXOL, a synthetic oleanolic acid derivative which activates dual cell death machineries, could be a potential and novel chemotherapeutic agent.

Ganoderiol A-enriched extract suppresses migration and adhesion of MDA-MB-231 cells by inhibiting FAK-SRC-paxillin cascade pathway

Cell adhesion, migration and invasion are critical steps for carcinogenesis and cancer metastasis. Ganoderma lucidum, also called Lingzhi in China, is a traditional Chinese medicine, which exhibits anti-proliferation, anti-inflammation and anti-metastasis properties. Herein, GAEE, G. lucidum extract mainly contains ganoderiol A (GA), dihydrogenated GA and GA isomer, was shown to inhibit the abilities of adhesion and migration, while have a slight influence on that of invasion in highly metastatic breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells at non-toxic doses. Further investigation revealed that GAEE decreased the active forms of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and disrupted the interaction between FAK and SRC, which lead to deactivating of paxillin. Moreover, GAEE treatment downregulated the expressions of RhoA, Rac1, and Cdc42, and decreased the interaction between neural Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome protein (N-WASP) and Cdc42, which impair cell migration and actin assembly. To our knowledge, this is the first report to show that G.lucidum triterpenoids could suppress cell migration and adhesion through FAK-SRC-paxillin signaling pathway. Our study also suggests that GAEE may be a potential agent for treatment of breast cancer.

Potent antiproliferative cembrenoids accumulate in tobacco upon infection with Rhodococcus fascians and trigger unusual microtubule dynamics in human glioblastoma cells

AIMS

Though plant metabolic changes are known to occur during interactions with bacteria, these were rarely challenged for pharmacologically active compounds suitable for further drug development. Here, the occurrence of specific chemicals with antiproliferative activity against human cancer cell lines was evidenced in hyperplasia (leafy galls) induced when plants interact with particular phytopathogens, such as the Actinomycete Rhodococcus fascians.

METHODS

We examined leafy galls fraction F3.1.1 on cell proliferation, cell division and cytoskeletal disorganization of human cancer cell lines using time-lapse videomicroscopy imaging, combined with flow cytometry and immunofluorescence analysis. We determined the F3.1.1-fraction composition by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

The leafy galls induced on tobacco by R. fascians yielded fraction F3.1.1 which inhibited proliferation of glioblastoma U373 cells with an IC50 of 4.5 µg/mL, F.3.1.1 was shown to increase cell division duration, cause nuclear morphological deformations and cell enlargement, and, at higher concentrations, karyokinesis defects leading to polyploidization and apoptosis. F3.1.1 consisted of a mixture of isomers belonging to the cembrenoids. The cellular defects induced by F3.1.1 were caused by a peculiar cytoskeletal disorganization, with the occurrence of fragmented tubulin and strongly organized microtubule aggregates within the same cell. Colchicine, paclitaxel, and cembrene also affected U373 cell proliferation and karyokinesis, but the induced microtubule rearrangement was very different from that provoked by F3.1.1. Altogether our data indicate that the cembrenoid isomers in F3.1.1 have a unique mode of action and are able to simultaneously modulate microtubule polymerization and stability.

Antioxidative characteristics of Anisomeles indica extract and inhibitory effect of ovatodiolide on melanogenesis

The purpose of the study was to investigate the antioxidant characteristics of Anisomeles indica methanol extract and the inhibitory effect of ovatodiolide on melanogenesis. In the study, the antioxidant capacities of A. indica methanol extract such as DPPH assay, ABTS radical scavenging assay, reducing capacity and metal ion chelating capacity as well as total phenolic content of the extract were investigated. In addition, the inhibitory effects of ovatodiolide on mushroom tyrosinase, B16F10 intracellular tyrosinase and melanin content were determined spectrophotometrically. Our results revealed that the antioxidant capacities of A. indica methanol extract increased in a dose-dependent pattern. The purified ovatodiolide inhibited mushroom tyrosinase activity (IC₅₀ = 0.253 mM), the compound also effectively suppressed intracellular tyrosinase activity (IC₅₀ = 0.469 mM) and decreased the amount of melanin (IC₅₀ = 0.435 mM) in a dose-dependent manner in B16F10 cells. Our results concluded that A. indica methanol extract displays antioxidant capacities and ovatodiolide purified from the extract inhibited melanogenesis in B16F10 cells. Hence, A. indica methanol extract and ovatodiolide could be applied as a type of dermatological whitening agent in skin care products.