Salidroside: A review of its recent advances in synthetic pathways and pharmacological properties

The GLCCI1/STAT3 pathway: a novel pathway involved in diabetic cognitive dysfunction and the therapeutic effect of salidroside

Diabetic cognitive dysfunction (DCD) is a complication of diabetes that seriously affects quality of life. Glucocorticoid-induced transcript 1 (GLCCI1) has been found to be involved in inflammation, apoptosis and autophagy in various diseases. However, the distribution of GLCCI1 in the brain and its role in DCD have not yet been revealed. In addition, the potential therapeutics effects of salidroside (SAL), a phenyl propyl glycoside compound known for its neuroprotective effects in treating DCD are unknow. In the present study, we found that GLCCI1 was localized in hippocampal neurons. C57BL/6 J mice with DCD presented downregulation of GLCCI1 and Bcl-2 and upregulation of p-STAT3/STAT3, Bax, Cleaved Caspase-3/Caspase-3. Overexpression of GLCCI1 or SAL administration relieved DCD, reversed the changes in the expression of these cytokines, and alleviated morphological alterations in hippocampal neurons. Interestingly, SAL alleviated DCD and attenuated the expression of GLCCI1 and p-STAT3, showing similar effects as GLCCI1 overexpression. These findings suggest that the GLCCI1/STAT3 axis plays a crucial role in DCD and is involved in SAL-mediated attenuation of DCD.

Engineering an Ancestral Glycosyltransferase for Biosynthesis of 2-Phenylethyl-β-d-Glucopyranoside and Salidroside

Phenylethanoid glycosides (PhGs) are naturally occurring glycosides derived from plants with various biological activities. Glycosyltransferases catalyze the production of PhGs from phenylethanols via a transglycosylation reaction. The low activity and stability of glycosyltransferase limit its industrial application. An ancestral glycosyltransferase, UGTAn85, with heat resistance, alkali resistance, and high stability was resurrected using ancestral sequence reconstruction technology. This enzyme can efficiently convert phenylethanols to PhGs. The optimal reaction temperature and pH for UGTAn85 were found to be 70 °C and pH 10.0, respectively. This study employed a combination of structure-guided rational design and co-evolution analysis to enhance its catalytic activity. Potential mutation sites were identified through computer-aided design, including homology modeling, molecular docking, Rosetta dock design, molecular dynamics simulation, and co-evolution analysis. By targeted mutagenesis, the UGTAn85 mutant Q23E/N65D exhibited a 2.2-fold increase in enzyme activity (11.85 U/mg) and elevated affinity (Km = 0.11 mM) for 2-phenylethanol compared to UGTAn85. Following a fed-batch reaction, 36.16 g/L 2-phenylethyl-β-d-glucopyranoside and 51.49 g/L salidroside could be produced within 24 h, respectively. The findings in this study provide a new perspective on enhancing the stability and activity of glycosyltransferases, as well as a potential biocatalyst for the industrial production of PhGs.

Recuperative potential of Indian medicinal plant compounds- a tool to encumber henipaviruses: an in -silico study

Henipaviruses, highly fatal zoonotic viruses with mortality rates up to 100%, pose a significant threat to humans. Despite sporadic cases, including infections from Cedar, Langya, and Nipah Viruses, there are no established drugs or vaccines for treatment. This lack of specific medication led us to explore 57 non-toxic compounds from Indian Medicinal Plants, selected from 232 compounds, aiming to combat these viruses. Through in silico ADMET analyses, Three compounds-andrographolide, pterygospermin and Salidroside-stood out for their exceptional non-toxic properties. These compounds underwent in silico target prediction, molecular docking and dynamics with Cedar, Langya, and Nipah Virus proteins from the Protein Data Bank. Among them, Andrographolide displayed the most promising negative free energy scores and stability in Cedar Virus-Attachment G-Protein binding pockets. Pterygospermin and Salidroside showed efficacy against Langya and Nipah Virus target proteins throughout the simulation. These compounds not only exhibited antiviral properties but also demonstrated immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective effects by our in-silico studies. Their potential as treatments or preventive measures against henipaviral infections makes them promising candidates for further research and development.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40203-024-00236-x.

Salidroside improves cognitive function in Parkinson's disease via Braf-mediated mitogen‑activated protein kinase signaling pathway

OBJECTIVE

To delve into the underlying mechanism of Salidroside (Sal) on the improvement of cognitive function in Parkinson's Disease (PD).

METHODS

The experimental mice were divided into Control group, Model group [injected with 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)], and Model+Sal (low concentration, high concentration) group. Mouse hippocampal tissues were extracted for RNA sequencing to obtain the core pathway and core gene. Mouse plasma was prepared and analyzed by LC-MS to obtain differential metabolites. In vitro experiments were verified by immunofluorescence and lentiviral transduction.

RESULTS

ELISA signaled that Sal facilitated the reduction of neuronal damage and inflammatory reaction in mice. MPTP_Sal_Low and MPTP_Sal_High groups had high levels of glial cell derived neurotrophie factor (GDNF) expression. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in control group, MPTP group and MPTP_Sal_High group were identified by transcriptomic, which were classified to the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway, and the core gene Braf was obtained. Metabolomics manifested that the differential metabolites involved DL-tyrosine, adenosine, phosphoenolpyruvate, and L-tryptophan. In vitro experiments verified that Sal treatment inhibited the up-regulation of p-p38, p-c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p-extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) expression, and growth of neuronal protrusions. The OE-Braf group showed a significant up-regulation of the GDNF expression, a decrease in the expression of p-p38, p-JNK, and p-ERK, and a significant growth of neuronal protrusions.

CONCLUSION

Sal may exert its effects in PD through the Braf-mediated MAPK signaling pathway, which can increase GDNF expression and promote neuronal protrusion growth for the protection of neurological function and the improvement of cognitive function.

Synthesis and bioactivity evaluation of mirror isomer salidroside derivatives as potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agents

A series of derivatives of salidroside with mirror isomer glucose and different phenyl moieties were synthesized by Schmidt glycosylation in satisfactory yields, and their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities were evaluated by using LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. One of the synthesized derivatives ʟ-Sal-4, bearing ʟ-glycosyl and -OMe modification at the phenyl ring, exhibited high activity in inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress biomarker MDA as well as in enhancing the activity of SOD enzyme, compared with the natural product and its corresponding ᴅ-enantiomer. Further proteomic analysis suggested that ʟ-Sal-4 exerted its anti-inflammatory activity through metabolic reprogramming. The in vitro activity showed that ʟ-Sal-4 is a potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent. Our finding indicated that the ʟ-glucose-derived salidroside might be a promising lead compound in the development of salidroside derivatives as therapeutic agents.

The effect of plant-derived polyphenols on the immune system during aging: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

Polyphenols are organic compounds with diverse biological activities such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, making them important candidates for the development of anti-aging drugs. In this systematic review, we aimed to answer the question: can plant-derived polyphenols have an immunomodulatory effect in experimental models of aging?

METHODS

We systematically searched Web of Science, MEDLINE/Pubmed, and Embase to select articles using the following combinations of terms and synonyms: polyphenols, phenols, senescence, aging, and immune. The selected articles were evaluated for reporting quality and risk-of-bias according to standard guidelines.

RESULTS

The most used polyphenol was resveratrol, followed by curcumin, salidroside, and gallic acid. These molecules demonstrated an ability to restore immune function both in vitro and in vivo. The mechanism of action was not completely elucidated in these studies, but inhibition of NF-kB signaling, and antioxidant properties seemed to account for the anti-aging effects. All articles included in the review had good quality of reporting but failed to describe an adequate sample size, criteria for inclusion/exclusion, randomization, and blinding.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that polyphenols are promising immunomodulatory substances for use in anti-aging therapies. However, more research with standardized analysis is needed to understand the role of these molecules in the prevention or reduction of damage associated with the aging process, as well as to determine the safety profile and consequences of systemic action.

Salidroside Alleviates Furan-Induced Impaired Gut Barrier and Inflammation via Gut Microbiota-SCFA-TLR4 Signaling

As a food contaminant that can be quickly absorbed through the gastrointestinal system, furan has been shown to disrupt the intestinal flora and barrier. Investigation of the intestinal toxicity mechanism of furan is of great significance to health. We previously identified the regulatory impact of salidroside (SAL) against furan-provoked intestinal damage, and the present work further explored whether the alleviating effect of SAL against furan-caused intestinal injury was based on the intestinal flora; three models, normal, pseudo-germ-free, and fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), were established, and the changes in intestinal morphology, barrier, and inflammation were observed. Moreover, 16S rDNA sequencing observed the variation of the fecal flora associated with inflammation and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). Results obtained from the LC-MS/MS suggested that SAL increased furan-inhibited SCFA levels, activated the mRNA expressions of SCFA receptors (GPR41, GPR43, and GPR109A), and inhibited the furan-activated TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling. Analysis of protein-protein interaction further confirmed the aforementioned effects of SAL, which inhibited furan-induced barrier damage and intestinal inflammation.

Ginsenosides ameliorates high altitude-induced hypoxia injury in lung and kidney tissues by regulating PHD2/HIF-1α/EPO signaling pathway

Background: The primary constituent of ginseng, known as ginsenosides (GS), has been scientifically demonstrated to possess anti-fatigue, anti-hypoxia, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. However, the effect and mechanisms of GS on tissue injury induced by high-altitude hypoxia still remain unclear. Aim of the study: This study aims to investigate the protective effect of GS on a high-altitude hypoxia model and explore its mechanism. Materials and methods: Sprague-Dawley rats were placed in a high-altitude simulation chamber for 48 h (equivalent to an altitude of 6,000 m) to establish a high-altitude hypoxia model. We assessed the anti-hypoxic efficacy of GS through blood gas analysis, complete blood count, and hemorheology analysis. We used H&E and hypoxia probe assays to evaluate the protective effect of GS on organ ischemia-induced injury. Further, we used ELISA and qPCR analysis to detect the levels of inflammatory factors and oxidative stress markers. Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence staining were performed to determinate protein expression of hypoxia inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α), erythropoietin (EPO), and prolyl hydroxylase 2 (PHD2). Results: In the survival experiment of anoxic mice, 100 mg/kg of GS had the best anti-anoxic effect. GS slowed down the weight loss rate of rats in hypoxic environment. In the fluorescence detection of hypoxia, GS reduced the fluorescence signal value of lung and kidney tissue and alleviated the hypoxia state of tissue. Meanwhile GS improved blood biochemical and hematological parameters. We also observed that GS treatment significantly decreased oxidative stress damage in lung and kidney tissues. Further, the levels of inflammatory factors, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α were reduced by GS. Finally, GS regulated the PHD2/HIF-1α/EPO signaling pathway to improve blood viscosity and tissue hyperemia damage. Conclusion: GS could alleviate high-altitude induced lung and kidney damage by reducing the level of inflammation and oxidative stress, improving blood circulation through the PHD2/HIF-1α/EPO pathway.

Ferroptosis: Latest evidence and perspectives on plant-derived natural active compounds mitigating doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a chemotherapy drug widely used in clinical settings, acting as a first-line treatment for various malignant tumors. However, its use is greatly limited by the cardiotoxicity it induces, including doxorubicin-induced cardiomyopathy (DIC). The mechanisms behind DIC are not fully understood, but its potential biological mechanisms are thought to include oxidative stress, inflammation, energy metabolism disorders, mitochondrial damage, autophagy, apoptosis, and ferroptosis. Recent studies have shown that cardiac injury induced by DOX is closely related to ferroptosis. Due to their high efficacy, availability, and low side effects, natural medicine treatments hold strong clinical potential. Currently, natural medicines have been shown to mitigate DOX-induced ferroptosis and ease DIC through various functions such as antioxidation, iron ion homeostasis correction, lipid metabolism regulation, and mitochondrial function improvement. Therefore, this review summarizes the mechanisms of ferroptosis in DIC and the regulation by natural plant products, with the expectation of providing a reference for future research and development of inhibitors targeting ferroptosis in DIC. This review explores the mechanisms of ferroptosis in doxorubicin-induced cardiomyopathy (DIC) and summarizes how natural plant products can alleviate DIC by inhibiting ferroptosis through reducing oxidative stress, correcting iron ion homeostasis, regulating lipid metabolism, and improving mitochondrial function.

Effects of salidroside on atherosclerosis: potential contribution of gut microbiota

Much research describes gut microbiota in atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases (ASCVD) for that the composition of the intestinal microbiome or its metabolites can directly participate in the development of endothelial dysfunction, atherosclerosis and its adverse complications. Salidroside, a natural phenylpropane glycoside, exhibits promising biological activity against the progression of ASCVD. Recent studies suggested that the gut microbiota played a crucial role in mediating the diverse beneficial effects of salidroside on health. Here, we describe the protective effects of salidroside against the progression of atherosclerosis. Salidroside regulates the abundance of gut microbiotas and gut microbe-dependent metabolites. Moreover, salidroside improves intestinal barrier function and maintains intestinal epithelial barrier function integrity. In addition, salidroside attenuates the inflammatory responses exacerbated by gut microbiota disturbance. This review delves into how salidroside functions to ameliorate atherosclerosis by focusing on its interaction with gut microbiota, uncovering the potential roles of gut microbiota in the diverse biological impacts of salidroside.

The role of Cistanches Herba and its ingredients in improving reproductive outcomes: A comprehensive review

BACKGROUND

Infertility patients account for an astonishing proportion of individuals worldwide. Due to its complex etiology and challenging treatment, infertility has imposed significant psychological and economic burdens on many patients. C. Herba (Cistanche tubulosa (Schenk) Wight and Cistanche deserticola Ma), renowned as one of the most prominent Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs), is abundant in diverse bioactive compounds that exhibit therapeutic effects on many diseases related to oxidative stress (OS) and disorders of sex hormone levels.

OBJECTIVE

Due to the limited drugs currently used in clinical practice to improve reproductive outcomes and their inevitable side effects, developing safe and effective new medications for infertility is of significance. This article comprehensively reviewed the phytochemicals of C. Herba, focusing on their efficacy and mechanisms on infertility and their safety for the first time, aiming to offer valuable insights for the development and application of C. Herba, and for developing novel strategies for treating infertility.

METHODS

We used "Cistanche" and its known bioactive components in combination with "sperm", "testicles", "epididymis", "ovaries", "uterus", and "infertility" as keywords to search in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus and CNKI up to November 2023. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guideline was followed.

RESULTS

The therapeutic effects of C. Herba on infertility are mainly attributed to echinacoside (ECH), verbascoside (VB), salidroside (SAL), polysaccharides, and betaine. They can effectively improve spermatogenic dysfunction, gonadal dysfunction and erectile dysfunction (ED) by exerting anti-oxidation, sex hormones regulation and anti-hypoxia. Moreover, they can also improve premature ovarian failure (POF), ovarian and uterine cancer, oocyte maturation by exerting anti-oxidation, anti-apoptosis, and anti-cancer. C. Herba and its active ingredients also exhibit pleasing safety.

CONCLUSION

C. Herba is a promising source of natural medicine for infertility. Additionally, compared to current therapeutic drugs, its favorable safety also supports its development as a nutritional supplement. However, high-quality clinical studies are required to validate its effectiveness for the development of novel therapeutic strategies.

Mechanism of salidroside regulating autophagy based on network pharmacology and molecular docking

Salidroside is a natural product of phenols with a wide range of pharmacological functions, but whether it plays a role in regulating autophagy is unclear. We systematically investigated the regulatory effect and molecular mechanism of salidroside on autophagy through network pharmacology, which provided a theoretical basis for subsequent experimental research. First, the target genes of salidroside were obtained using the Chinese Medicine System Pharmacology Database and Analysis Platform, and the target genes were converted into standardized gene names using the Uniprot website. At the same time, autophagy-related genes were collected from GeneCards, and preliminary handling of data to obtain intersecting genes. Then, the String website was used to construct a protein-protein interaction network, and to perform the Gene Ontology functional annotation and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis. To observe the specific molecular mechanism by which salidroside regulates autophagy, we constructed a drug component-target genes-autophagy network. Finally, we performed molecular docking to verify the possible binding conformation between salidroside and the candidate target. By searching the database and analyzing the data, we found that 113 target genes in salidroside interact with autophagy. Salidroside regulate autophagy in relation to a number of important oncogenes and signaling pathways. Molecular docking confirmed that salidroside has high affinity with mTOR, SIRT1, and AKT1. Through network pharmacology combined with molecular docking-validated research methods, we revealed the underlying mechanism of salidroside regulation of autophagy. This study not only provides new systematic insights into the underlying mechanism of salidroside in autophagy, but also provides new ideas for network approaches for autophagy-related research.

Dietary salidroside supplementation improves meat quality and antioxidant capacity and regulates lipid metabolism in broilers

We aimed to explore the effect of salidroside (SAL) on meat quality, antioxidant capacity, and lipid metabolism in broilers. The results demonstrated that SAL significantly reduced the yellowness (b*), shear force, cooking loss, drip loss, MDA, TBARS, and carbonyl content in breast (P < 0.05), while increasing the pH value (P < 0.05), suggesting an improvement in meat quality. SAL lowered the lipid contents in liver and serum (P < 0.05), while increasing the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids in breast (P < 0.05), indicating effective regulation of lipid metabolism by SAL. SAL increased the activity of antioxidant enzymes and the expression of antioxidant genes in both liver and muscle (P < 0.05). Additionally, SAL improved the meat quality and antioxidant capacity of breast subjected to repeated freeze-thaw treatment. SAL may enhance meat quality by improving antioxidative stability and regulating lipid metabolism, potentially serving as a dietary supplement for broilers.

Salidroside ameliorates acute liver transplantation rejection in rats by inhibiting neutrophil extracellular trap formation

Acute rejection is an important factor affecting the survival of recipients after liver transplantation. Salidroside has various properties, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and hepatoprotective properties. This study aims to investigate whether salidroside can prevent acute rejection after liver transplantation and to examine the underlying mechanisms involved. An in vivo acute rejection model is established in rats that are pretreated with tacrolimus (1 mg/kg/d) or salidroside (10 or 20 mg/kg/d) for seven days after liver transplantation. In addition, an in vitro experiment is performed using neutrophils incubated with salidroside (1, 10, 50 or 100 μM). Hematoxylin-eosin staining, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling staining, immunosorbent assays, immunofluorescence analysis, Evans blue staining, and western blot analysis are performed to examine the impact of salidroside on NET formation and acute rejection in vitro and in vivo. We find that Salidroside treatment reduces pathological liver damage, serum aminotransferase level, and serum levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in vivo. The expressions of proteins associated with the HMGB1/TLR-4/MAPK signaling pathway (HMGB1, TLR-4, p-ERK1/2, p-JNK, p-P38, cleaved caspase-3, cleaved caspase-9, Bcl-2, Bax, IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6) are also decreased after salidroside treatment. In vitro experiments show that the release of HMGB1/TLR-4/MAPK signaling pathway-associated proteins from neutrophils treated with lipopolysaccharide is decreased by salidroside. Moreover, salidroside inhibits NETosis and protects against acute rejection by regulating the HMGB1/TLR-4/MAPK signaling pathway. Furthermore, salidroside combined with tacrolimus has a better effect than either of the other treatments alone. In summary, salidroside can prevent acute liver rejection after liver transplantation by reducing neutrophil extracellular trap development through the HMGB1/TLR-4/MAPK signaling pathway.

Development of a gene-coded biosensor to establish a high-throughput screening platform for salidroside production

Metabolic engineering reconfigures cellular networks to produce value-added compounds from renewable substrates efficiently. However, identifying strains with desired phenotypes from large libraries through rational or random mutagenesis remains challenging. To overcome this bottleneck, an effective high-throughput screening (HTS) method must be developed to detect and analyze target candidates rapidly. Salidroside is an aromatic compound with broad applications in food, healthcare, medicine, and daily chemicals. However, there currently needs to be HTS methods available to monitor salidroside levels or to screen enzyme variants and strains for high-yield salidroside biosynthesis, which severely limits the development of microbial cell factories capable of efficiently producing salidroside on an industrial scale. This study developed a gene-encoded whole-cell biosensor that is specifically responsive to salidroside. The biosensor was created by screening a site-saturated mutagenic library of uric acid response regulatory protein binding bags. This work demonstrates the feasibility of monitoring metabolic flux with whole-cell biosensors for critical metabolites. It provides a promising tool for building salidroside high-yielding strains for high-throughput screening and metabolic regulation to meet industrial needs.

Transcriptome and metabolome analysis revealed the dynamic change of bioactive compounds of Fructus Ligustri Lucidi

BACKGROUND

The Fructus Ligustri Lucidi, the fruit of Ligustrum lucidum, contains a variety of bioactive compounds, such as flavonoids, triterpenoids, and secoiridoids. The proportions of these compounds vary greatly during the different fruit development periods of Fructus Ligustri Lucidi. However, a clear understanding of how the proportions of the compounds and their regulatory biosynthetic mechanisms change across the different fruit development periods of Fructus Ligustri Lucidi is still lacking.

RESULTS

In this study, metabolite profiling and transcriptome analysis of six fruit development periods (45 DAF, 75 DAF, 112 DAF, 135 DAF, 170 DAF, and 195 DAF) were performed. Seventy compounds were tentatively identified, of which secoiridoids were the most abundant. Eleven identified compounds were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography. A total of 103,058 unigenes were obtained from six periods of Fructus Ligustri Lucidi. Furthermore, candidate genes involved in triterpenoids, phenylethanols, and oleoside-type secoiridoid biosynthesis were identified and analyzed. The in vitro enzyme activities of nine glycosyltransferases involved in salidroside biosynthesis revealed that they can catalyze trysol and hydroxytyrosol to salidroside and hydroxylsalidroside.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide valuable information to clarify the profile and molecular regulatory mechanisms of metabolite biosynthesis, and also in optimizing the harvest time of this fruit.

Salidroside pretreatment alleviates ferroptosis induced by myocardial ischemia/reperfusion through mitochondrial superoxide-dependent AMPKα2 activation

BACKGROUND

Ferroptosis, a form of regulated cell death (RCD) that relies on excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, Fe2+accumulation, abnormal lipid metabolism and is involved in various organ ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, expecially in myocardium. Mitochondria are the powerhouses of eukaryotic cells and essential in regulating multiple RCD. However, the links between mitochondria and ferroptosis are still poorly understood. Salidroside (Sal), a natural phenylpropanoid glycoside isolated from Rhodiola rosea, has mult-bioactivities. However, the effects and mechanism in alleviating ferroptosis caused by myocardial I/R injury remains unclear.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate whether pretreated with Sal could protect the myocardium against I/R damage and the underlying mechanisms. In particular, the relationship between Sal pretreatment, AMPKα2 activity, mitochondria and ROS generation was explored.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Firstly, A/R or I/R injury models were employed in H9c2 cells and Sprague-Dawley rats. And then the anti-ferroptotic effects and mechanism of Sal pretreatment was detected using multi-relevant indexes in H9c2 cells. Further, how does Sal pretreatment in AMPKα2 phosphorylation was explored. Finally, these results were validated by I/R injury in rats.

RESULTS

Similar to Ferrostatin-1 (a ferroptosis inhibitor) and MitoTEMPO, a mitochondrial free radical scavenger, Sal pretreatment effectively alleviated Fe2+ accumulation, redox disequilibrium and maintained mitochondrial energy production and function in I/R-induced myocardial injury, as demonstrated using multifunctional, enzymatic, and morphological indices. However, these effects were abolished by downregulation of AMPKα2 using an adenovirus, both in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, the results also provided a non-canonical mechanism that, under mild mitochondrial ROS generation, Sal pretreatment upregulated and phosphorylated AMPKα2, which enhanced mitochondrial complex I activity to activate innate adaptive responses and increase cellular tolerance to A/R injury.

CONCLUSION

Overall, our work highlighted mitochondria are of great impotance in myocardial I/R-induced ferroptosis and demonstrated that Sal pretreatment activated AMPKα2 against I/R injury, indicating that Sal could become a candidate phytochemical for the treatment of myocardial I/R injury.

Targeting NF-κB in Hepatic Ischemia-Reperfusion Alleviation: from Signaling Networks to Therapeutic Targeting

Hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury (HIRI) is a major complication of liver trauma, resection, and transplantation that can lead to liver dysfunction and failure. Scholars have proposed a variety of liver protection methods aimed at reducing ischemia-reperfusion damage, but there is still a lack of effective treatment methods, which urgently needs to find new effective treatment methods for patients. Many studies have reported that signaling pathway plays a key role in HIRI pathological process and liver function recovery mechanism, among which nuclear transfer factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway is one of the signal transduction closely related to disease. NF-κB pathway is closely related to HIRI pathologic process, and inhibition of this pathway can delay oxidative stress, inflammatory response, cell death, and mitochondrial dysfunction. In addition, NF-κB can also interact with PI3K/Akt, MAPK, and Nrf2 signaling pathways to participate in HIRI regulation. Based on the role of NF-κB pathway in HIRI, it may be a potential target pathway for HIRI. This review emphasizes the role of inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway in oxidative stress, inflammatory response, cell death, and mitochondrial dysfunction in HIRI, as well as the effects of related drugs or inhibitors targeting NF-κB on HIRI. The objective of this review is to elucidate the role and mechanism of NF-κB pathway in HIRI, emphasize the important role of NF-κB pathway in the prevention and treatment of HIRI, and provide a theoretical basis for the target NF-κB pathway as a therapy for HIRI.

Salidroside prevents gestational hypertension-induced impairment of offspring learning and memory via Wnt/Skp2 pathway

BACKGROUND

Salidroside (Sal) has been found to protect against multiple impairments caused by diabetes, and we designed this study to investigate the effect of Sal on gestational hypertension (GHP)-induced impairment of offspring learning and memory.

METHODS

We established a GHP rat model by intraperitoneal injection of NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), and treated with Sal by daily gavage. We used Morris Water Maze test to evaluate the learning and memory ability of offspring rats. HE staining was used to measured the pathological changes in hippocampus of offspring. Immunohistochemistry, cellular immunofluorescence and western blot were used to detect the protein expression.

RESULTS

The learning and memory abilities of GHP offspring rats were significantly lower than those of normal rat offspring, while Sal treatment could significantly improve the learning and memory abilities of GHP offspring rats. HE staining did not reveal pathological differences in the hippocampus of normal rats, GHP rats and Sal-treated GHP offspring rats. However, Sal treatment can significantly increase the expression of Wnt1 and Skp2 protein, and decrease the expression of P27kiwf and P21waf1 protein in the hippocampus of GHP offspring rats. In vitro, Sal significantly promoted the proliferation and differentiation on neural stem cell, while Wnt1 knockdown could reverse these promotions by Sal. In the hippocampus of GHP offspring rats, Sal treatment significantly increased the expression of Tuj1, SOX2, Ki67 and DCX protein.

CONCLUSION

Salidroside significantly improves the learning and memory impairment of offspring caused by GHP, and its mechanism may be related to the fact that Salidroside promotes the proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells by activating the Wnt1/Skp2 signaling pathway.

Neuroprotective effects of the salidroside derivative SHPL-49 via the BDNF/TrkB/Gap43 pathway in rats with cerebral ischemia

Ischemic stroke is a common intravascular disease and one of the leading causes of death and disability. The salidroside derivative SHPL-49, which we previously synthesized, significantly attenuates cerebral ischemic injury in a rat model of permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion. To explore the neuroprotective mechanism of SHPL-49, the effects of SHPL-49 on the expression levels of neurotrophic factors in neurons and microglia and the polarization of microglia were investigated in the present study. SHPL-49 activated the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) pathway, decreased the number of degenerated neurons, and accelerated neurogenesis in rats with cerebral ischemia. In addition, SHPL-49 promoted the polarization of microglia toward the M2 phenotype to alleviate neuroinflammation. In BV2 cells, SHPL-49 upregulated CD206 mRNA and protein levels and inhibited CD86 mRNA and protein levels. SHPL-49 also increased neurotrophic factor secretion in BV2 cells, which indirectly promoted the survival of primary neurons after oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). Proteomics analysis revealed that SHPL-49 promoted growth-associated protein 43 (Gap43) expression. SHPL-49 enhanced synaptic plasticity and increased Gap43 protein levels via activation of the BDNF pathway in the OGD primary neuron model. These results indicate that SHPL-49 prevents cerebral ischemic injury by activating neurotrophic factor pathways and altering microglial polarization. Thus, SHPL-49 is a potential neuroprotective agent.

Treating cancer through modulating exosomal protein loading and function: The prospects of natural products and traditional Chinese medicine

Exosomes, small yet vital extracellular vesicles, play an integral role in intercellular communication. They transport critical components, such as proteins, lipid bilayers, DNA, RNA, and glycans, to target cells. These vesicles are crucial in modulating the extracellular matrix and orchestrating signal transduction processes. In oncology, exosomes are pivotal in tumor growth, metastasis, drug resistance, and immune modulation within the tumor microenvironment. Exosomal proteins, noted for their stability and specificity, have garnered widespread attention. This review delves into the mechanisms of exosomal protein loading and their impact on tumor development, with a focus on the regulatory effects of natural products and traditional Chinese medicine on exosomal protein loading and function. These insights not only offer new strategies and methodologies for cancer treatment but also provide scientific bases and directions for future clinical applications.

Mechanisms of Sepsis-Induced Acute Lung Injury and Advancements of Natural Small Molecules in Its Treatment

Sepsis-induced acute lung injury (ALI), characterized by widespread lung dysfunction, is associated with significant morbidity and mortality due to the lack of effective pharmacological treatments available clinically. Small-molecule compounds derived from natural products represent an innovative source and have demonstrated therapeutic potential against sepsis-induced ALI. These natural small molecules may provide a promising alternative treatment option for sepsis-induced ALI. This review aims to summarize the pathogenesis of sepsis and potential therapeutic targets. It assembles critical updates (from 2014 to 2024) on natural small molecules with therapeutic potential against sepsis-induced ALI, detailing their sources, structures, effects, and mechanisms of action.

Highly efficient biosynthesis of salidroside by a UDP-glucosyltransferase-catalyzed cascade reaction

OBJECTIVE

Salidroside is an important plant-derived aromatic compound with diverse biological properties. The main objective of this study was to synthesize salidroside from tyrosol using UDP-glucosyltransferase (UGT) with in situ regeneration of UDP-glucose (UDPG).

RESULTS

The UDP-glucosyltransferase 85A1 (UGT85A1) from Arabidopsis thaliana, which showed high activity and regioselectivity towards tyrosol, was selected for the production of salidroside. Then, an in vitro cascade reaction for in situ regeneration of UDPG was constructed by coupling UGT85A1 to sucrose synthase from Glycine max (GmSuSy). The optimal UGT85A1-GmSuSy activity ratio of 1:2 was determined to balance the efficiency of salidroside production and UDP-glucose regeneration. Different cascade reaction conditions for salidroside production were also determined. Under the optimized condition, salidroside was produced at a titer of 6.0 g/L with a corresponding molar conversion of 99.6% and a specific productivity of 199.1 mg/L/h in a continuous feeding reactor.

CONCLUSION

This is the highest salidroside titer ever reported so far using biocatalytic approach.

Advancements in research on the immune-inflammatory mechanisms mediated by NLRP3 inflammasome in ischemic stroke and the regulatory role of natural plant products

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a major cause of mortality and disability among adults. Recanalization of blood vessels to facilitate timely reperfusion is the primary clinical approach; however, reperfusion itself may trigger cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Emerging evidence strongly implicates the NLRP3 inflammasome as a potential therapeutic target, playing a key role in cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury. The aberrant expression and function of NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated inflammation in cerebral ischemia have garnered considerable attention as a recent research focus. Accordingly, this review provides a comprehensive summary of the signaling pathways, pathological mechanisms, and intricate interactions involving NLRP3 inflammasomes in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Moreover, notable progress has been made in investigating the impact of natural plant products (e.g., Proanthocyanidins, methylliensinine, salidroside, α-asarone, acacia, curcumin, morin, ginsenoside Rd, paeoniflorin, breviscapine, sulforaphane, etc.) on regulating cerebral ischemia and reperfusion by modulating the NLRP3 inflammasome and mitigating the release of inflammatory cytokines. These findings aim to present novel insights that could contribute to the prevention and treatment of cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury.

Protective effect and regulatory mechanism of salidroside on skin inflammation induced by imiquimod in psoriasis mice

Salidroside (SAL) is a glucoside of tyrosol commonly existing in the roots of Rhodiola rosea. This study unveils the protective effect of SAL on skin inflammation in imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis. The mouse model of psoriasis was established by local application of IMQ, and SAL efficacy was evaluated through PASI scoring, H&E staining, and skin tissue pathology observation. The HaCaT cell model was established by interferon (IFN)-γ induction, followed by MTT assay detection of cell viability, detection of ROS, SOD, MDA, and CAT levels in skin tissues and cells using reagent kits, ELISA detection of inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β), and qRT-PCR detection of psoriasis-related genes (S100a9, Cxcl1, Cxcl2) as well as miR-369-3p and SMAD2 expressions. The binding relationship between miR-369-3p and SMAD2 was validated using dual-luciferase reporter assay. SAL treatment reduced PASI scores and alleviated psoriasis symptoms of IMQ-induced mice, and also augmented the viability and subsided the oxidative stress and inflammation of IFN-γ-treated HaCaT cells. SAL treatment restrained miR-369-3p expression but elevated SMAD2 expression. Mechanistically, miR-369-3p targeted SMAD2 expression. miR-369-3p overexpression or SMAD2 inhibition partially offset the alleviating effect of SAL on psoriasis skin inflammation. In conclusion, SAL alleviates skin inflammation in IMQ-induced psoriasis mice via the miR-369-3p/SMAD2 axis.

The Role of Rosavin in the Pathophysiology of Bone Metabolism

Rosavin, a phenylpropanoid in Rhodiola rosea's rhizome, and an adaptogen, is known for enhancing the body's response to environmental stress. It significantly affects cellular metabolism in health and many diseases, particularly influencing bone tissue metabolism. In vitro, rosavin inhibits osteoclastogenesis, disrupts F-actin ring formation, and reduces the expression of osteoclastogenesis-related genes such as cathepsin K, calcitonin receptor (CTR), tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6), tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP), and matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP-9). It also impedes the nuclear factor of activated T-cell cytoplasmic 1 (NFATc1), c-Fos, the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways and blocks phosphorylation processes crucial for bone resorption. Moreover, rosavin promotes osteogenesis and osteoblast differentiation and increases mouse runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2) and osteocalcin (OCN) expression. In vivo studies show its effectiveness in enhancing bone mineral density (BMD) in postmenopausal osteoporosis (PMOP) mice, restraining osteoclast maturation, and increasing the active osteoblast percentage in bone tissue. It modulates mRNA expressions by increasing eukaryotic translation elongation factor 2 (EEF2) and decreasing histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1), thereby activating osteoprotective epigenetic mechanisms, and alters many serum markers, including decreasing cross-linked C-telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX-1), tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase 5b (TRACP5b), receptor activator for nuclear factor κ B ligand (RANKL), macrophage-colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), and TRAP, while increasing alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and OCN. Additionally, when combined with zinc and probiotics, it reduces pro-osteoporotic matrix metallopeptidase 3 (MMP-3), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and enhances anti-osteoporotic interleukin 10 (IL-10) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 3 (TIMP3) expressions. This paper aims to systematically review rosavin's impact on bone tissue metabolism, exploring its potential in osteoporosis prevention and treatment, and suggesting future research directions.

A review of natural products targeting tumor immune microenvironments for the treatment of lung cancer

Lung cancer (LC) produces some of the most malignant tumors in the world, with high morbidity and mortality. Tumor immune microenvironment (TIME), a component of the tumor microenvironment (TME), are critical in tumor development, immune escape, and drug resistance. The TIME is composed of various immune cells, immune cytokines, etc, which are important biological characteristics and determinants of tumor progression and outcomes. In this paper, we reviewed the recently published literature and discussed the potential uses of natural products in regulating TIME. We observed that a total of 37 natural compounds have been reported to exert anti-cancer effects by targeting the TIME. In different classes of natural products, terpenoids are the most frequently mentioned compounds. TAMs are one of the most investigated immune cells about therapies with natural products in TIME, with 9 natural products acting through it. 17 natural products exhibit anti-cancer properties in LC by modulating PD-1 and PD-L1 protein activity. These natural products have been extensively evaluated in animal and cellular LC models, but their clinical trials in LC patients are lacking. Based on the current review, we have revealed that the mechanisms of LC can be treated with natural products through TIME intervention, resulting in a new perspective and potential therapeutic drugs.

Salidroside protects RGC from pyroptosis in diabetes-induced retinopathy associated with NLRP3, NFEZL2 and NGKB1, revealed by network pharmacology analysis and experimental validation

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of salidroside (SAL) in protecting retinal ganglion cell (RGC) from pyroptosis and explore associated molecular network mechanism in diabetic retinapathy (DR) rats.

METHODS

HE, Nissl and immunofluorescence staining were used to observe the retinal morphological change, and the related target genes for salidroside, DR and pyroptosis were downloaded from GeneCard database. Then Venny, PPI, GO, KEGG analysis and molecular docking were used to reveal molecular network mechanism of SAL in inhibiting the pyroptosis of RGC. Lastly, all hub genes were confirmed by using qPCR.

RESULTS

HE and Nissl staining showed that SAL could improve the pathological structure known as pyroptosis in diabetic retina, and the fluorescence detection of pyroptosis marker in DM group was the strongest, while they decreased in the SAL group(P < 0.05)). Network pharmacological analysis showed 6 intersecting genes were obtained by venny analysis. GO and KEGG analysis showed 9 biological process, 3 molecular function and 3 signaling pathways were involved. Importantly, molecular docking showed that NFE2L2, NFKB1, NLRP3, PARK2 and SIRT1 could combine with salidroside, and qPCR validates the convincible change of CASP3, NFE2L2, NFKB1, NLRP3, PARK2 and SIRT1.

CONCLUSION

Salidroside can significantly improve diabetes-inducedRGC pyrotosis in retina, in which, the underlying mechanism is associated with the NLRP3, NFEZL2 and NGKB1 regulation.

Parkin-mediated mitophagy is a potential treatment for oxaliplatin-induced peripheral neuropathy

Oxaliplatin-induced peripheral nerve pain (OIPNP) is a common chemotherapy-related complication, but the mechanism is complex. Mitochondria are vital for cellular homeostasis and regulating oxidative stress. Parkin-mediated mitophagy is a cellular process that removes damaged mitochondria, exhibiting a protective effect in various diseases; however, its role in OIPNP remains unclear. In this study, we found that Parkin-mediated mitophagy was decreased, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) was upregulated in OIPNP rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) in vivo and in PC12 cells stimulated with oxaliplatin (OXA) in vitro. Overexpression of Parkin indicated that OXA might cause mitochondrial and cell damage by inhibiting mitophagy. We also showed that salidroside (SAL) upregulated Parkin-mediated mitophagy to eliminate damaged mitochondria and promote PC12 cell survival. Knockdown of Parkin indicated that mitophagy is crucial for apoptosis and mitochondrial homeostasis in PC12 cells. In vivo study also demonstrated that SAL enhances Parkin-mediated mitophagy in the DRG and alleviates peripheral nerve injury and pain. These results suggest that Parkin-mediated mitophagy is involved in the pathogenesis of OIPNP and may be a potential therapeutic target for OIPNP.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This article discusses the effects and mechanisms of Parkin-mediated mitophagy in oxaliplatin-induced peripheral nerve pain (OIPNP) from both in vivo and in vitro. We believe that our study makes a significant contribution to the literature because OIPNP has always been the focus of clinical medicine, and mitochondrial quality regulation mechanisms especially Parkin-mediated mitophagy, have been deeply studied in recent years. We use a variety of molecular biological techniques and animal experiments to support our argument.

Natural products in traditional Chinese medicine: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic targets of renal fibrosis and state-of-the-art drug delivery systems

Renal fibrosis (RF) is the end stage of several chronic kidney diseases. Its series of changes include excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of renal tubular cells, fibroblast activation, immune cell infiltration, and renal cell apoptosis. RF can eventually lead to renal dysfunction or even renal failure. A large body of evidence suggests that natural products in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) have great potential for treating RF. In this article, we first describe the recent advances in RF treatment by several natural products and clarify their mechanisms of action. They can ameliorate the RF disease phenotype, which includes apoptosis, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and EMT, by affecting relevant signaling pathways and molecular targets, thereby delaying or reversing fibrosis. We also present the roles of nanodrug delivery systems, which have been explored to address the drawback of low oral bioavailability of natural products. This may provide new ideas for using natural products for RF treatment. Finally, we provide new insights into the clinical prospects of herbal natural products.

Construction of an Escherichia coli cell factory for de novo synthesis of tyrosol through semi-rational design based on phenylpyruvate decarboxylase ARO10 engineering

Tyrosol (2-(4-hydroxyphenyl) ethanol) is extensively used in the pharmaceutical industry as an important natural product from plants. In previous research, we constructed a recombinant Escherichia coli strain capable of de novo synthesis of tyrosol by integrating the phenylpyruvate decarboxylase ARO10 derived from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Nevertheless, the insufficient catalytic efficiency of ARO10 required the insertion of multiple gene copies into the genome to attain enhanced tyrosol production. In this study, we constructed a mutation library of ARO10 based on a computer-aided semi-rational design strategy and developed a high-throughput screening method for selecting high-yield tyrosol mutants by introducing the heterologous hydroxylase complex HpaBC. Through multiple rounds of screening and site-saturation mutagenesis, we ultimately identified the two optimal ARO10 mutants, ARO10D331V and ARO10D331C, which respectively achieved a tyrosol titer of 2.02 g/L and 2.04 g/L in shake flasks, both representing more than 50 % improvement compared to the wild-type. Our study demonstrates the great potential of computer-based semi-rational enzyme design strategy in metabolic engineering. The high-throughput screening method for target compound derivative possesses a certain level of generality. Ultimately, we obtained promising mutants capable of achieving industrial-scale production of tyrosol, which also lays a solid foundation for the efficient synthesis of tyrosol derivatives.

Structure-based virtual screening against multiple Plasmodium falciparum kinases reveals antimalarial compounds

The continuous emergence of resistance against most frontline antimalarial drugs has led to countless deaths in malaria-endemic countries, counting 619,000 deaths in 2021, with mutation in drug targets being the sole cause. As mutation is correlated frequently with fitness cost, the likelihood of mutation emergence in multiple targets at a time is extremely low. Hence, multitargeting compounds may seem promising to address drug resistance issues with additional benefits like increased efficacy, improved safety profile, and the requirement of fewer pills compared to traditional single and combinational drugs. In this study, we attempted to use the High Throughput Virtual Screening approach to predict multitarget inhibitors against six chemically validated Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) kinases (PfPKG, PfMAP2, PfCDPK4, PfTMK, PfPK5, PfPI4K), resulting in 21 multitargeting hits. The molecular dynamic simulation of the top six complexes (Myricetin-MAP2, Quercetin-CDPK4, Myricetin-TMK, Quercetin-PKG, Salidroside-PK5, and Salidroside-PI4K) showed stable interactions. Moreover, hierarchical clustering reveals the structural divergence of the compounds from the existing antimalarials, indicating less chance of cross-resistance. Additionally, the top three hits were validated through parasite growth inhibition assays, with quercetin and myricetin exhibiting an IC50 value of 1.84 and 3.93 µM, respectively.

Neuroprotective Mechanisms of Salidroside in Alzheimer's Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Preclinical Studies

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system that occurs in old age and pre-aging, characterized by progressive cognitive dysfunction and behavioral impairment. Salidroside (Sal) is a phenylpropanoid mainly isolated from Rhodiola species with various pharmacological effects. However, the exact anti-AD mechanism of Sal has not been clearly elucidated. This meta-analysis aims to investigate the possible mechanisms by which Sal exerts its anti-AD effects by evaluating behavioral indicators and biochemical characteristics. A total of 20 studies were included, and the results showed that the Sal treatment significantly improved behavior abnormalities in AD animal models. With regard to neurobiochemical indicators, Sal treatment could effectively increase the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase, decrease the oxidative stress indicator malondialdehyde, and decrease the inflammatory indicators interleukin 1β, interleukin 6, and tumor necrosis factor α. Sal treatment was effective in reducing neuropathological indicators, such as amyloid-β levels and the number of apoptotic cells. When the relevant literature on the treatment of rodent AD models is combined with Sal, the therapeutic potential of Sal through multiple mechanisms was confirmed. However, further confirmation by higher quality studies, larger sample sizes, and more comprehensive outcome evaluations in clinical trials is needed in the future.

Salidroside Ameliorates Furan-Induced Testicular Inflammation in Relation to the Gut-Testis Axis and Intestinal Apoptosis

Furan is a heat-induced food contaminant, and it causes damage to visceral organs, including the testis. To determine the mechanism of the damage to the testis, a mouse model treated with furan (8 mg/kg bw/day) and salidroside (SAL, 10/20/40 mg/kg bw/day) was established, and levels of testicular functional markers and changes of morphology were investigated in furan-induced mice treated with SAL. The change in related proteins and genes suggested that SAL restored the furan-mediated leaky tight junction and triggered the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome together with inflammation. To find out the gut-testis axis, microbiota PICRUSt analysis and correlation analysis were conducted to investigate the core microbiota and metabolites. The endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS)-related key protein levels and the result of transmission electron microscopy suggested that SAL inhibited the furan-induced intestinal ERS. The result of TUNEL and levels of apoptosis-related proteins suggested that furan-induced intestinal apoptosis was alleviated by SAL. Collectively, SAL inhibited furan-induced ERS-mediated intestinal apoptosis through modulation of intestinal flora and metabolites, thus strengthening the gut barrier. It inhibited LPS from entering the circulatory system and suppressed the testicular TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome, which alleviated testicular inflammation.

Rosavin: Research Advances in Extraction and Synthesis, Pharmacological Activities and Therapeutic Effects on Diseases of the Characteristic Active Ingredients of Rhodiola rosea L

Rhodiola rosea L. (RRL) is a popular plant in traditional medicine, and Rosavin, a characteristic ingredient of RRL, is considered one of the most important active ingredients in it. In recent years, with deepening research on its pharmacological actions, the clinical application value and demand for Rosavin have been steadily increasing. Various routes for the extraction and all-chemical or biological synthesis of Rosavin have been gradually developed for the large-scale production and broad application of Rosavin. Pharmacological studies have demonstrated that Rosavin has a variety of biological activities, including antioxidant, lipid-lowering, analgesic, antiradiation, antitumor and immunomodulation effects. Rosavin showed significant therapeutic effects on a range of chronic diseases, including neurological, digestive, respiratory and bone-related disorders during in vitro and vivo experiments, demonstrating the great potential of Rosavin as a therapeutic drug for diseases. This paper gives a comprehensive and insightful overview of Rosavin, focusing on its extraction and synthesis, pharmacological activities, progress in disease-treatment research and formulation studies, providing a reference for the production and preparation, further clinical research and applications of Rosavin in the future.

Natural products for treating cytokine storm-related diseases: Therapeutic effects and mechanisms

BACKGROUND

A cytokine storm (CS) is a rapidly occurring, complex, and highly lethal systemic acute inflammatory response induced by pathogens and other factors. Currently, no clinical therapeutic drugs are available with a significant effect and minimal side effects. Given the pathogenesis of CS, natural products have become important resources for bioactive agents in the discovery of anti-CS drugs.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to provide guidance for preventing and treating CS-related diseases by reviewing the natural products identified to inhibit CS in recent years.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature review was conducted on CS and natural products, utilizing databases such as PubMed and Web of Science. The quality of the studies was evaluated and summarized for further analysis.

RESULTS

This study summarized more than 30 types of natural products, including 9 classes of flavonoids, phenols, and terpenoids, among others. In vivo and in vitro experiments demonstrated that these natural products could effectively inhibit CS via nuclear factor kappa-B, mitogen-activated protein kinase, and Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathways. Moreover, the enzyme inhibition assays revealed that more than 20 chemical components had the potential to inhibit ACE2, 3CL-protease, and papain-like protease activity. The experimental results were obtained using advanced technologies such as biochips and omics.

CONCLUSIONS

Various natural compounds in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) extracts could directly or indirectly inhibit CS occurrence, potentially serving as effective drugs for treating CS-related diseases. This study may guide further exploration of the therapeutic effects and biochemical mechanisms of natural products on CS.

Gut microbiota-based pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic study and molecular mechanism of specnuezhenide in the treatment of colorectal cancer targeting carboxylesterase

Specnuezhenide (SNZ) is among the main components of Fructus Ligustri Lucidi, which has anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation, and anti-tumor effect. The low bioavailability makes it difficult to explain the mechanism of pharmacological effect of SNZ. In this study, the role of the gut microbiota in the metabolism and pharmacokinetics characteristics of SNZ as well as the pharmacological meaning were explored. SNZ can be rapidly metabolized by the gut microbiome, and two intestinal bacterial metabolites of SNZ, salidroside and tyrosol, were discovered. In addition, carboxylesterase may be the main intestinal bacterial enzyme that mediates its metabolism. At the same time, no metabolism was found in the incubation system of SNZ with liver microsomes or liver homogenate, indicating that the gut microbiota is the main part involved in the metabolism of SNZ. In addition, pharmacokinetic studies showed that salidroside and tyrosol can be detected in plasma in the presence of gut microbiota. Interestingly, tumor development was inhibited in a colorectal tumor mice model administered orally with SNZ, which indicated that SNZ exhibited potential to inhibit tumor growth, and tissue distribution studies showed that salidroside and tyrosol could be distributed in tumor tissues. At the same time, SNZ modulated the structure of gut microbiota and fungal group, which may be the mechanism governing the antitumoral activity of SNZ. Furthermore, SNZ stimulates the secretion of short-chain fatty acids by intestinal flora in vitro and in vivo. In the future, targeting gut microbes and the interaction between natural products and gut microbes could lead to the discovery and development of new drugs.

Network pharmacology analysis combined with experimental validation to explore the therapeutic mechanism of salidroside on intestine ischemia reperfusion

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Salidroside (SAL), a phenolic natural product present in Rhodiola rosea, are commonly used in the treatment of various ischemic-hypoxic diseases, including intestinal ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury. However, their efficacy and potential mechanisms in the treatment of intestinal IR injury have not been investigated.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the present study is to investigate the pharmacological mechanism of action of SAL on intestinal IR injury using a network pharmacology approach combined with experimental validation.

METHODS

In the present study, we used the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systematic Pharmacology (TCMSP) database and analysis platform and Comparative Toxicogenomics Database (CTD) to predict possible target genes of SAL, collected relevant target genes of intestinal IR injury from GeneCards and DisGenet websites, and collected summary data to screen common target genes. Then, the protein-protein interaction (PPI) target network was constructed and analyzed by STRING database and Cytoscape 3.8.2 with the above intersecting genes. Then, gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analyses were performed and the component-target-pathway network was constructed, followed by the use of molecular docking and molecular dynamic simulation to verify the possible binding conformation between SAL and candidate targets to further explore the potential targets of SAL in the treatment of intestinal IR injury. Finally, an in vivo model of mouse superior mesenteric artery ligation was established to assess the anti-intestinal IR injury effect of SAL by assessing histopathological changes in mouse small intestine by HE staining, detecting inflammatory factor expression by ELISA kit, and detecting the expression of key protein targets by Western blotting.

RESULTS

A total of 166 SAL target genes and 1740 disease-related targets were retrieved, and 88 overlapping proteins were obtained as potential therapeutic targets. The pathway enrichment analysis revealed that the pharmacological effects of SAL on intestinal IR injury were anti-hypoxic, anti-inflammatory and metabolic pathway related, and the molecular docking and molecular dynamic simulation results showed that the core bioactive components had good binding affinity for TXNIP and AMPK, and the immunoblotting results indicated that the expression levels of TXNIP and AMPK in the small intestinal tissues of mice in the drug-treated group compared with the model group were significantly changed.

CONCLUSION

SAL may target AMPK and TXNIP domains to act as a therapeutic agent for intestinal IR. These findings comprehensively reveal the potential therapeutic targets for SAL against intestinal IR and provide theoretical basis for the clinical application of SAL in the treatment of intestinal IR.

Salidroside Supplementation Affects In Vitro Maturation and Preimplantation Embryonic Development by Promoting Meiotic Resumption

Salidroside (Sal) possesses several pharmacological activities, such as antiaging, and anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer activities, and proliferation-promoting activities, but the effects of Sal on oocytes have rarely been reported. In the present study, we evaluated the beneficial effects of Sal, which is mainly found in the roots of Rhodiola. Porcine cumulus oocyte complexes were cultured in IVM medium supplemented (with 250 μmol/L) with Sal or not supplemented with Sal. The maturation rate in the Sal group increased from 88.34 ± 4.32% to 94.12 ± 2.29%, and the blastocyst rate in the Sal group increased from 30.35 ± 3.20% to 52.14 ± 7.32% compared with that in the control group. The experimental groups showed significant improvements in the cumulus expansion area. Sal reduced oocyte levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and enhanced intracellular GSH levels. Sal supplementation enhanced the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), ATP level, and mtDNA copy number, which shows that Sal enhances the cytoplasmic maturation of oocytes. Oocytes in the Sal group exhibited slowed apoptosis and reduced DNA breakage. Cell cycle signals and oocyte meiosis play important roles in oocyte maturation. The mRNA expressions of the MAPK pathway and MAPK phosphorylation increased significantly in the Sal group. The mRNA expression of the oocyte meiosis gene also increased significantly. These results show that Sal enhances the nuclear maturation of oocytes. Moreover, Sal increased the number of blastocyst cells, the proliferation of blastocysts, and the expressions of pluripotency genes. Sal down-regulated apoptosis-related genes and the apoptotic cell rate of blastocysts. In summary, our results demonstrate that Sal is helpful to improving the quality of porcine oocytes in vitro, and their subsequent embryonic development.

Mechanism of salidroside in the treatment of endometrial cancer based on network pharmacology and molecular docking

Salidroside is a natural product of phenols, which has a wide scape of pharmacological effects, but its pharmacological effects and molecular mechanism on endometrial cancer are not clear. To systematically explore the pharmacological effects and molecular mechanisms of salidroside on endometrial cancer through the method of network pharmacology. The possible target genes of salidroside were obtained through different pharmacological databases and analysis platforms, and then the relevant target genes of endometrial cancer were obtained through the GeneCards website, and the target genes were uniformly converted into standardized gene names with Uniprot. The collected data were then processed to obtain common target genes and further analyzed through the String website to construct a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, followed by gene ontology (GO) functional annotation and Kyoto Gene and Genome Encyclopedia (KEGG) pathway analysis. We further interpreted the molecular mechanism of salidroside for the treatment of endometrial cancer by constructing a "drug component-target gene-disease" network. Finally, we performed molecular docking to validate the binding conformation between salidroside and the candidate target genes. There were 175 target genes of salidroside after normalization, among which 113 target genes interacted with endometrial cancer. GO analysis indicated that the anti-endometrial cancer effect of salidroside may be strongly related to biological processes such as apoptosis and response to drug. KEGG analysis indicated that its mechanism may be related to pathway in cancer and PI3K-AKT signaling pathway. Molecular docking showed that salidroside had high affinity with five key genes. Based on the novel network pharmacology and molecular docking validation research methods, we have revealed for the first time the potential mechanism of salidroside in the therapy of endometrial cancer.

Salidroside alleviates diet-induced obesity and insulin resistance by activating Nrf2/ARE pathway and enhancing the thermogenesis of adipose tissues

Recent reports suggest that salidroside protects cardiomyocytes from oxidative injury and stimulates glucose uptake by skeletal muscle cells. Despite these findings, the therapeutic potential of salidroside in the treatment of obesity and insulin resistance remains uncertain and requires further investigation. In the present study, the treatment effect of salidroside on the onset and development of the obese phenotype and insulin resistance as well as the underlying mechanisms was investigated using long-term high-fat diet-induced obese mice supplemented with salidroside. We used biochemical kits to determine serum biochemical parameters (including triacylglycerol, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, fasting glucose, and insulin). The results show that salidroside-supplemented animals showed better glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, decreased blood lipids, and weight gain (p < .05). Protein expression of p-Nrf2 and Nrf2 was analyzed by western blotting, and the mRNA levels of thermogenic-related genes (Ucp1, Pgc1a, Prdm16, and Cidea) were detected by quantitative RT-PCR. The results show an improvement in lipid peroxidation and Nrf2/ARE signaling, as well as an increased expression of the Ucp1, Pgc1a, Prdm16, and Cidea (p < .05). Our evidence suggests that salidroside alleviates diet-induced obesity and insulin resistance potentially by activating Nrf2/ARE pathway and enhancing the thermogenesis of adipose tissues. This induction represents a potential technique for the management of comorbidities related to obesity and its prevention.

Salidroside suppresses the multiple oncogenic activates and immune escape of lung adenocarcinoma through the circ_0009624-mediated PD-L1 pathway

BACKGROUND

Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is a fatal malignancy all over the world. Salidroside (SAL) is an active component extracted from Rhodiola rosea that has been reported to exert antitumor activity against several human cancers, containing lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD). The purpose of this study was to explore the effect and underlying mechanism of SAL in LUAD.

METHODS

Cell viability, proliferation, migration, and invasion were measured using cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8), 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU), and transwell assays. Effects of LUAD cells on the cytotoxicity, percentage, and death of CD8+ cells were detected using lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and flow cytometry assays. Programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) protein level was examined using western blot. Circ_0009624, enolase 1 (ENO1), and PD-L1 levels were determined using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). The biological role of SAL on LUAD tumor growth was assessed using the xenograft tumor model in vivo.

RESULTS

SAL restrained LUAD cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and immune escape in vitro via modulating PD-L1. Circ_0009624 expression was increased in LUAD. Applying SAL repressed circ_0009624 and PD-L1 expression in LUAD cells. SAL treatment hindered suppressed various oncogenic activates and immune escape of LUAD cells by regulating the circ_0009624/PD-L1 pathway. SAL blocked LUAD xenograft growth in vivo.

CONCLUSION

Applying SAL might constrain malignant phenotypes and immune escape of LUAD cells partially through the circ_0009624-mediated PD-L1 pathway, providing a novel insight for LUAD treatment.

Phenolic Compounds of Rhodiola rosea L. as the Potential Alternative Therapy in the Treatment of Chronic Diseases

The roots and rhizomes of Rhodiola rosea L. (Crassulaceae), which is widely growing in Northern Europe, North America, and Siberia, have been used since ancient times to alleviate stress, fatigue, and mental and physical disorders. Phenolic compounds: phenylpropanoids rosavin, rosarin, and rosin, tyrosol glucoside salidroside, and tyrosol, are responsible for the biological action of R. rosea, exerting antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anti-aging, anti-fatigue activities. R. rosea extract formulations are used as alternative remedies to enhance mental and cognitive functions and protect the central nervous system and heart during stress. Recent studies indicate that R. rosea may be used to treat diabetes, cancer, and a variety of cardiovascular and neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. This paper reviews the beneficial effects of the extract of R. rosea, its key active components, and their possible use in the treatment of chronic diseases. R. rosea represents an excellent natural remedy to address situations involving decreased performance, such as fatigue and a sense of weakness, particularly in the context of chronic diseases. Given the significance of mitochondria in cellular energy metabolism and their vulnerability to reactive oxygen species, future research should prioritize investigating the potential effects of R. rosea main bioactive phenolic compounds on mitochondria, thus targeting cellular energy supply and countering oxidative stress-related effects.

Mechanistic investigation of a D to N mutation in DAHP synthase that dictates carbon flux into the shikimate pathway in yeast

3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate-7-phosphate synthase (DAHPS) is a key enzyme in the shikimate pathway for the biosynthesis of aromatic compounds. _L-Phe and _L-Tyr bind to the two main DAHPS isoforms and inhibit their enzyme activities, respectively. Synthetic biologists aim to relieve such inhibitions in order to improve the productivity of aromatic compounds. In this work, we reported a point mutant of yeast DHAPS, Aro3^D154N, which retains the wild type enzyme activity but converts it highly inert to the inhibition by _L-Phe. The Aro3 crystal structure along with the molecular dynamics simulations analysis suggests that the D154N mutation distant from the inhibitor binding cavity may reduce the binding affinity of _L-Phe. Growth assays demonstrated that substitution of the conserved D154 with asparagine suffices to relieve the inhibition of _L-Phe on Aro3, _L-Tyr on Aro4, and the inhibitions on their corresponding homologues from diverse yeasts. The importance of our discovery is highlighted by the observation of 29.1% and 43.6% increase of yield for the production of tyrosol and salidroside respectively upon substituting ARO3 with ARO3^D154N. We anticipate that this allele would be used broadly to increase the yield of various aromatic products in metabolically diverse microorganisms.

Therapeutic potential of natural compounds from herbs and nutraceuticals in spinal cord injury: Regulation of the mTOR signaling pathway

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a disease in which the spinal cord is subjected to various external forces that cause it to burst, shift, or, in severe cases, injure the spinal tissue, resulting in nerve injury. SCI includes not only acute primary injury but also delayed and persistent spinal tissue injury (i.e., secondary injury). The pathological changes post-SCI are complex, and effective clinical treatment strategies are lacking. The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) coordinates the growth and metabolism of eukaryotic cells in response to various nutrients and growth factors. The mTOR signaling pathway has multiple roles in the pathogenesis of SCI. There is evidence for the beneficial effects of natural compounds and nutraceuticals that regulate the mTOR signaling pathways in a variety of diseases. Therefore, the effects of natural compounds on the pathogenesis of SCI were evaluated by a comprehensive review using electronic databases, such as PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Medline, combined with our expertise in neuropathology. In particular, we reviewed the pathogenesis of SCI, including the importance of secondary nerve injury after the primary mechanical injury, the roles of the mTOR signaling pathways, and the beneficial effects and mechanisms of natural compounds that regulate the mTOR signaling pathway on pathological changes post-SCI, including effects on inflammation, neuronal apoptosis, autophagy, nerve regeneration, and other pathways. This recent research highlights the value of natural compounds in regulating the mTOR pathway, providing a basis for developing novel therapeutic strategies for SCI.

Mechanism of salidroside against coronary artery disease by network pharmacology analysis

BACKGROUND

Rosenroot (Rhodiola rosea) is a traditional Chinese herbal medicine. It has been used to treat patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). Salidroside is the main active constituent of rosenroot. This study was designed to explore the mechanism of salidroside in treating CAD and its role in angiogenesis in CAD systematically.

METHODS

In this study, potential targets related to salidroside and CAD were obtained from public databases. Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), Disease Ontology (DO) and CellMarker enrichment analyses were performed. The binding of salidroside to angiogenesis-related targets was assessed by PyMOL and Ligplot. Furthermore, the effects of salidroside on collateral circulation were evaluated by correlation analysis of these angiogenesis-related targets with the coronary flow index (CFI), and the influence of salidroside on human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) proliferation and migration was assessed.

RESULTS

Eighty-three targets intersected between targets of salidroside and CAD. GO and KEGG analyses indicated that salidroside mainly treated CAD through angiogenesis and anti-inflammatory action. There were 12 angiogenesis-related targets of salidroside in coronary heart disease, among which FGF1 (r = 0.237, P = 2.597E-3), KDR (r = 0.172, P = 3.007E-2) and HIF1A (r = -0.211, P = 7.437E-3) were correlated with the coronary flow index (CFI), and salidroside docked well with them. Finally, cell experiments confirmed that salidroside promoted the proliferation and migration of HUVECs.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed the potential molecular mechanism of salidroside on angiogenesis in CAD and provided new ideas for the clinical application of salidroside in the treatment of CAD.

Salidroside alleviates cognitive impairment by inhibiting ferroptosis via activation of the Nrf2/GPX4 axis in SAMP8 mice

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurogenerative disease and remains no effective method for stopping its progress. Ferroptosis and adaptive immunity have been proven to contribute to AD pathogenesis. Salidroside exhibits neuroprotective and immunomodulatory effects. However, the underlying mechanisms linking salidroside, ferroptosis, and adaptive immunity in AD remain uncertain.

PURPOSE

The objective of this study is to explore the neuroprotective effects and the potential molecular mechanisms of salidroside against neuronal ferroptosis and CD8⁺ T cell infiltration in senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8) mice.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

SAMP8 mice were employed as an AD model and were treated with salidroside for 12 weeks. Behavioral tests, immunohistochemistry, HE and Nissl staining, immunofluorescence, transmission electron microscopy, quantitative proteomics, bioinformatic analysis, flow cytometry, iron staining, western blotting, and molecular docking were performed.

RESULTS

Treatment with salidroside dose-dependently attenuated cognitive impairment, reduced the accumulation of Aβ plaques and restored neuronal damage. Salidroside also suppressed the infiltration of CD8⁺T cells, oxidative stress, and inflammatory cytokines, and improved mitochondrial metabolism, iron metabolism, lipid metabolism, and redox in the SAMP8 mice brain. The administration of salidroside decreased iron deposition, reduced TFR1, and ACSL4 protein expression, upregulated SLC7A11, and GPX4 protein expression, and promoted the Nrf2/GPX4 axis activation.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, neuronal ferroptosis and CD8⁺T cells are involved in the process of cognitive impairment in SAMP8 mice. Salidroside alleviates cognitive impairment and inhibits neuronal ferroptosis. The underlying mechanisms may involve the Nrf2/GPX4 axis activation and reduction in CD8⁺T cells infiltration. This study provides some evidence for the roles of salidroside in adaptive immunity and neuronal ferroptosis in SAMP8 mice.

Mechanisms of ferroptosis in Alzheimer's disease and therapeutic effects of natural plant products: A review

Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), are characterized by massive loss of specific neurons. It is a progressive disabling, severe and fatal complex disease. Due to its complex pathogenesis and limitations of clinical treatment strategies, it poses a serious medical challenge and medical burden worldwide. The pathogenesis of AD is not clear, and its potential biological mechanisms include aggregation of soluble amyloid to form insoluble amyloid plaques, abnormal phosphorylation of tau protein and formation of intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFT), neuroinflammation, ferroptosis, oxidative stress and metal ion disorders. Among them, ferroptosis is a newly discovered programmed cell death induced by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species. Recent studies have shown that ferroptosis is closely related to AD, but the mechanism remains unclear. It may be induced by iron metabolism, amino acid metabolism and lipid metabolism affecting the accumulation of iron ions. Some iron chelating agents (deferoxamine, deferiprone), chloroiodohydroxyquine and its derivatives, antioxidants (vitamin E, lipoic acid, selenium), chloroiodohydroxyquine and its derivatives Fer-1, tet, etc. have been shown in animal studies to be effective in AD and exert neuroprotective effects. This review summarizes the mechanism of ferroptosis in AD and the regulation of natural plant products on ferroptosis in AD, in order to provide reference information for future research on the development of ferroptosis inhibitors.

Salidroside protects mice from high-fat diet-induced obesity by modulating the gut microbiota

Obesity is a systemic disease with multisystem inflammation associated with gut dysbiosis. Salidroside (SAL) which is a major glycoside extracted from Rhodiola rosea L. has a wide range of pharmacological effects, but the role of gut microbiota in the protective effects of SAL on obesity has not been studied. Herein, we aim to explore whether SAL could ameliorate high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity in mice by modulating microbiota. Results showed that oral treatment with SAL alleviated HFD-induced obesity in mice as evidenced by body weight and fat weight. SAL supplementation effectively attenuated fat accumulation, lipid synthesis genes expression, liver inflammation, and metabolic endotoxemia. In addition, SAL treatment alleviated intestinal damage and increased the expression of mucin protein (Mucin-2) and tight junction (TJ) proteins (Occludin and Zonula Occludens-1). 16S rRNA sequencing analysis revealed that the gut microbiota of obese mice was also partly improved by SAL via restoring the microbial community structure and diversity. A fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) study was designed to verify the causality. Compared with fecal transplantation (FM) from the HFD-treated mice, FM from the SAL-treated mice significantly mitigate the symptoms of obese mice, including decreasing body weight, fat accumulation, and attenuating pathological damage in the gut. Thus, SAL could be a remarkable candidate to prevent obesity.

Green-Efficient Enzymatic Synthesis and Characterization of Liposoluble 6'/6″-O-Lauryl Phenolic Glycosides with Enhanced Intestinal Permeability

Arbutin, salidroside, polydatin, and phlorizin are typically natural bioactive phenolic glycosides. To improve the liposolubility and bioavailability, highly liposoluble derivatives including 6'-O-lauryl arbutin, 6'-O-lauryl salidroside, 6″-O-lauryl polydatin, and 6″-O-lauryl phlorizin were efficiently synthesized by enzymatic acylation in a green solvent 2-MeTHF. Their reaction conversions reached 84.4, 99.5, 99.8, and 89.1%, respectively, when catalyzed by Lipozyme 435 at 20 mg/mL at 50 °C. As expected, the derivatives had high log P (1.66-2.37) and retained good antioxidant activity, making them potential alternatives to butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and tert-butyl-hydroquinone (TBHQ) in lipid systems. Then, the intestinal permeability characteristics and metabolism of phenolic glycosides and their derivatives were investigated based on Caco-2 monolayers. The permeability of polydatin and phlorizin was mainly through active transport, but that of arbutin and salidroside involved both passive diffusion and active uptake. The acylated derivatives suffered from severe CES-mediated hydrolysis but exhibited a larger transported amount than phenolic glycosides.