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Shankar T, Arora P, Jose JR, Kaushik A. Thrombotic microangiopathy following a white-lipped pit viper envenomation. BMJ Case Rep 2024; 17:e258813. [PMID: 38782420 DOI: 10.1136/bcr-2023-258813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Certain snake envenomation patients with consumptive coagulopathy, termed venom-induced consumption coagulopathy, develop thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA). Due to predominant renal involvement, TMA is said to resemble haemolytic uraemic syndrome and is treated with haemodialysis. We present a case of a young male who presented to the emergency department after being bitten by a white-lipped pit viper (Trimeresurus albolabris). He developed heart failure in addition to acute kidney injury secondary to TMA. He was treated with 30 vials of anti-snake venom according to national guidelines and underwent haemodialysis. Despite haemodialysis, the patient's ventilatory parameters continued to worsen, necessitating invasive mechanical ventilation. Thus, he was initiated on plasma exchange therapy, to which the patient responded well. TMA has not been reported in Trimeresurus envenomations yet, to the best of our knowledge. Additionally, plasma exchange therapy can be considered an adjunctive therapy for snakebite patients who develop TMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takshak Shankar
- Emergency Medicine, AIIMS Rishikesh, Rishikesh, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Poonam Arora
- Emergency Medicine, AIIMS Rishikesh, Rishikesh, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Jewel Rani Jose
- Emergency Medicine, AIIMS Rishikesh, Rishikesh, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Aseem Kaushik
- Emergency Medicine, AIIMS Rishikesh, Rishikesh, Uttarakhand, India
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Thakur S, Yasmin R, Malhotra A, Lalremsanga HT, Santra V, Giri S, Doley R. Isolation and Functional Characterization of Erythrofibrase: An Alfa-Fibrinogenase Enzyme from Trimeresurus erythrurus Venom of North-East India. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:201. [PMID: 38668626 PMCID: PMC11054993 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16040201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Green pit viper bites induce mild toxicity with painful local swelling, blistering, cellulitis, necrosis, ecchymosis and consumptive coagulopathy. Several bite cases of green pit vipers have been reported in several south-east Asian countries including the north-eastern region of India. The present study describes isolation and characterization of a haemostatically active protein from Trimeresurus erythrurus venom responsible for coagulopathy. Using a two-step chromatographic method, a snake venom serine protease erythrofibrase was purified to homogeneity. SDS-PAGE of erythrofibrase showed a single band of ~30 kDa in both reducing and non-reducing conditions. The primary structure of erythrofibrase was determined by ESI LC-MS/MS, and the partial sequence obtained showed 77% sequence similarity with other snake venom thrombin-like enzymes (SVTLEs). The partial sequence obtained had the typical 12 conserved cysteine residues, as well as the active site residues (His57, Asp102 and Ser195). Functionally, erythrofibrase showed direct fibrinogenolytic activity by degrading the Aα chain of bovine fibrinogen at a slow rate, which might be responsible for causing hypofibrinogenemia and incoagulable blood for several days in envenomated patients. Moreover, the inability of Indian polyvalent antivenom (manufactured by Premium Serum Pvt. Ltd., Maharashtra, India) to neutralize the thrombin-like and plasmin-like activity of erythrofibrase can be correlated with the clinical inefficacy of antivenom therapy. This is the first study reporting an α-fibrinogenase enzyme erythrofibrase from T. erythrurus venom, which is crucial for the pathophysiological manifestations observed in envenomated victims.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susmita Thakur
- Molecular Toxinology Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, Assam, India; (S.T.); (R.Y.)
| | - Rafika Yasmin
- Molecular Toxinology Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, Assam, India; (S.T.); (R.Y.)
| | - Anita Malhotra
- Molecular Ecology and Evolution at Bangor, School of Environmental and Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK;
| | - Hmar Tlawmte Lalremsanga
- Developmental Biology and Herpetology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Mizoram University, Aizawl 796004, Mizoram, India;
| | - Vishal Santra
- Society for Nature Conservation, Research and Community Engagement (CONCERN), Nalikul 712407, West Bengal, India;
- Captive and Field Herpetology, 13 Hirfron, Anglesey LL65 1YU, UK
- Shree Sainath Surgical and Maternity Hospital, Valsad 396050, Gujrat, India
| | - Surajit Giri
- Demow Government Community Health Centre, Raichai, Konwar Dihingia Gaon, Sivasagar 785662, Assam, India;
| | - Robin Doley
- Molecular Toxinology Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, Assam, India; (S.T.); (R.Y.)
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Othong R, Eurcherdkul T, Chantawatsharakorn P. Green Pit Viper Envenomations in Bangkok: A Comparison of Follow-Up Compliance and Clinical Outcomes in Older and Younger Adults. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120869. [PMID: 36548767 PMCID: PMC9784995 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Revised: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We compared older and younger adults envenomated by the green pit viper (GPV) with regard to the following: follow-up compliance, elapsed time between envenomation and emergency department (ED) visit, and clinical/treatment outcomes. This was a two-site retrospective cohort study. We searched hospital electronic medical databases between January 2011 and December 2021. Patients aged 15 and above were eligible if they had a history of snakebite and had at least two VCT and/or platelet count results in their medical records. After the search, 1550 medical records were reviewed and 760 cases were found to be eligible for analysis. In total, 205 cases (27.0%) were ≥60 years old. The median ages in the younger and older groups were 40 (26-51) and 68 (64-75) years, respectively. The median elapsed times from bite to the ED were 47 (30-118) vs. 69 (35-150) min (p-value = 0.001). Overall, 91.3% of all cases were managed as out-patient cases and were eligible for follow-up appointments. The rate of out-patient follow-up at 72 ± 12 h in the older patients was significantly higher (43.2%) than in the younger adult patients (32.4%) (p-value = 0.01). Regarding the clinical/treatment outcomes, the rates of coagulopathy, antivenom administration, and hospital admission were not statistically different between both groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rittirak Othong
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Faculty of Medicine Vajira Hospital, Navamindradhiraj University, Bangkok 10300, Thailand
- Correspondence:
| | - Thanaphat Eurcherdkul
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Faculty of Medicine Vajira Hospital, Navamindradhiraj University, Bangkok 10300, Thailand
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Tiyawat G, Lohajaroensub S, Othong R. Diagnostic Tests for Hypofibrinogenemia Resulting from Green Pit Viper (Trimeresurus albolabris) Envenomation: A Simulated In Vitro Study. Wilderness Environ Med 2022; 33:371-378. [PMID: 36216671 DOI: 10.1016/j.wem.2022.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The green pit viper (GPV) Trimeresurus albolabris is found in Southeast Asia. Its venom has a thrombin-like activity that can cause hypofibrinogenemia. Fibrinogen measurement is not always available. We aimed to establish a more available diagnostic tool indicating hypofibrinogenemia caused by GPV envenomation. METHODS This was an in vitro study, in which healthy subjects aged 20 to 45 y were enrolled. There were 2 experiments. In Experiment 1, blood samples from 1 subject had varying amounts of T albolabris venom added to determine its effect on the fibrinogen level (FL). In Experiment 2, 3 sets of blood samples were obtained from another 25 subjects. The 2 venom doses established in Experiment 1 were used on 2 sets of the samples to simulate severe (FL <1.0 g·L-1) and mild hypofibrinogenemia (FL 1.0-1.7 g·L-1). The third set of samples was venom-free. All samples were used for platelet counts, prothrombin time (PT)/international normalized ratio (INR)/activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), and 2 bedside clotting tests. Diagnostic parameters were calculated against the target FL of <1.0 g·L-1 and <1.7 g·L-1. RESULTS Twenty-five subjects were enrolled in Experiment 2. On referencing normal cutoff values (platelet count >150,000 cells/mm3, venous clotting time <15 min, normal 20-min whole blood clotting time, INR <1.2, aPTT <30), we found abnormalities of 5, 0, 0, 3, and 22%, respectively. The highest correlation with hypofibrinogenemia was provided by PT/INR. For an FL of <1.0 g·L-1, PT and INR revealed the highest areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve, 0.76 (95% CI, 0.55-0.97) and 0.76 (95% CI, 0.57-0.97), respectively. The highest accuracy and the highest sensitivity were provided by PT/INR. CONCLUSIONS PT/INR could be used as a diagnostic test for severe hypofibrinogenemia in GPV envenomation because of its high accuracy and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gawin Tiyawat
- Department of Disaster and Emergency Medical Operation, Faculty of Sciences and Health Technology, Navamindradhiraj University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Rittirak Othong
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Faculty of Medicine Vajira Hospital, Navamindradhiraj University, Bangkok, Thailand.
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Thakur S, Malhotra A, Giri S, Lalremsenga HT, Bharti OK, Santra V, Martin G, Doley R. Venom of several Indian green pit vipers: Comparison of biochemical activities and cross-reactivity with antivenoms. Toxicon 2022; 210:66-77. [PMID: 35217025 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Green pit vipers, a name that can refer to several unrelated species, comprise a large group of venomous snakes found across the humid areas of tropical and sub-tropical Asia, and are responsible for most of the bite cases across this region. In India, green pit vipers belonging to several genera are prevalent in the northern and north-eastern hilly region, unrelated to species present in the peninsular region. In the present study, crude venom of representative species of green pit vipers present in the north and north-eastern hilly region of India (Trimeresurus erythrurus, T. septentrionalis, Viridovipera medoensis, and Popiea popieorum) were characterized to elucidate venom composition and venom variation. Profiling of crude venoms using SDS-PAGE and RP-HPLC methods revealed quantitative differences among the species. Further, in vitro biochemical assays reveal variable levels of phospholipase activity, coagulation activity, thrombin-like activity, fibrinogenolytic and haemolytic activity. This correlates with the pseudo-procoagulant effects on the haemostatic system of victims, which causes consumptive coagulopathy, frequently observed in patients bitten by green pit vipers. The immunoreactivity of Indian polyvalent antivenom and Thai green pit viper antivenom towards crude venoms were also evaluated by western blotting and inhibition of biochemical activities. The results exhibited poor efficacy of Indian polyvalent antivenom in neutralizing the venom toxins of crude venoms; however, Thai green pit viper antivenin (raised against the venom of Trimeresurus allbolabris, not present in India) showed higher immunoreactivity towards congeneric venoms tested. Analysis of green pit viper bite patients records from a community health centre in Assam, India, further revealed the inability of Indian polyvalent antivenom to reverse the extended coagulopathy featured.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susmita Thakur
- Molecular Toxinology Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Assam, 784028, India
| | - Anita Malhotra
- Molecular Ecology and Evolution at Bangor, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, LL57 2UW, Gwynedd, UK
| | - Surajit Giri
- Demow Government Community Health Centre, Raichai, KonwarDihingia Gaon, Sivasagar, Assam, India
| | - H T Lalremsenga
- Department of Zoology, Mizoram University, Aizawl, 796004, Mizoram, India
| | - Omesh K Bharti
- State Institute of Health & Family Welfare Parimahal, Shimla, HP, India
| | - Vishal Santra
- Society for Nature Conservation, Research and Community Engagement (CONCERN), Nalikul, Hooghly, West Bengal, 712407, India; Captive and Field Herpetology, 13 Hirfron, Anglesey, LL65 1YU, Wales, UK
| | - Gerard Martin
- The Liana Trust, Survey #1418/1419, Rathnapuri, Hunsur, Karnataka, India
| | - Robin Doley
- Molecular Toxinology Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Assam, 784028, India.
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Proteomics and preclinical antivenom neutralization of the mangrove pit viper (Trimeresurus purpureomaculatus, Malaysia) and white-lipped pit viper (Trimeresurus albolabris, Thailand) venoms. Acta Trop 2020; 209:105528. [PMID: 32442435 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Revised: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Debono J, Bos MHA, Frank N, Fry B. Clinical implications of differential antivenom efficacy in neutralising coagulotoxicity produced by venoms from species within the arboreal viperid snake genus Trimeresurus. Toxicol Lett 2019; 316:35-48. [PMID: 31509773 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2019.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Snake envenomation globally is attributed to an ever-increasing human population encroaching into snake territories. Responsible for many bites in Asia is the widespread genus Trimeresurus. While bites lead to haemorrhage, only a few species have had their venoms examined in detail. We found that Trimeresurus venom causes haemorrhaging by cleaving fibrinogen in a pseudo-procoagulation manner to produce weak, unstable, short-lived fibrin clots ultimately resulting in an overall anticoagulant effect due to fibrinogen depletion. The monovalent antivenom 'Thai Red Cross Green Pit Viper antivenin', varied in efficacy ranging from excellent neutralisation of T. albolabris venom through to T. gumprechti and T. mcgregori being poorly neutralised and T. hageni being unrecognised by the antivenom. While the results showing excellent neutralisation of some non-T. albolabris venoms (such as T. flavomaculaturs, T. fucatus, and T. macrops) needs to be confirmed with in vivo tests, conversely the antivenom failure T. hageni, and the very poor results against T. gumprechti and T. mcgregori, despite being conducted in the ideal scenario of preincubation of antivenom:venom, indicates that the likelihood of clinically relevant cross-reactivity for these species is low (T. gumprechti and T. mcgregori) to non-existent (T. hageni). These same latter three species were also not inhibited by the serine protease inhibitor AEBSF, suggesting that the toxins leading to a coagulotoxic effect in these species are non-serine proteases while in contrast T. albolabris coagulotoxicity was completely impeded by AEBSF, and thus driven by kallikrein-type serine proteases. There was a conspicuous lack of phylogenetic pattern in venom variation, with the most potent venoms (T. albolabris and T. hageni) being distant to each other on the organismal tree, and with the three most divergent and poorly neutralised venoms (T. gumprechti, T. hageni, and T. mcgregori) were also not each others closest relatives. This reinforces the paradigm that the fundamental dynamic evolution of venom results in organismal phylogeny being a poor predictor of venom potency or antivenom efficacy. This study provides a robust investigation on the differential venom effects from a wide range of Trimeresurus species on coagulation, highlighting differential fibrinogenolytic effects, while also investigating the relative antivenom neutralisation capabilities of the widely available Thai Red Cross Green Pit Viper antivenom. These results therefore have immediate, real-world implications for patients envenomed by Trimeresurus species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan Debono
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Mettine H A Bos
- Division of Thrombosis and Hemostasis, Einthoven Laboratory for Vascular and Regenerative Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | | | - Bryan Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
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Retrospective Documentation of a Confirmed White-Lipped Green Pit Viper (Trimeresurus albolabris Gray, 1842) Bite in the South-Central Hills of Nepal. Wilderness Environ Med 2019; 30:79-85. [DOI: 10.1016/j.wem.2018.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Revised: 10/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Greene S, Galdamez LA, Tomasheski R. White-Lipped Tree Viper ( Cryptelytrops albolabris ) Envenomation in an American Viper Keeper. J Emerg Med 2017; 53:e115-e118. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jemermed.2017.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2017] [Revised: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Pharmacokinetics of Cryptelytrops purpureomaculatus (mangrove pit viper) venom following intravenous and intramuscular injections in rabbits. Int Immunopharmacol 2014; 17:997-1001. [PMID: 24455773 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2013.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The pharmacokinetic profiles of Cryptelytrops purpureomaculatus (mangrove pit viper) venom following intravenous and intramuscular injections were investigated in rabbits. The serum levels of the venom were estimated using double-sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). After intravenous injection (0.2 mg/kg), the serum venom concentration–time course declined in a biexponential manner, consistent with a two-compartment model, with an α-phase half-life of 0.25 h and a β-phase half-life of 27.7 h. The volume of distribution by area was 2.19 L/kg and systemic clearance was 54.7 mL/h/kg. When the venom was injected intramuscularly (0.5 mg/kg), the serum level increased rapidly to reach a peak (500 ng/mL) at about 1 h, which then declined rapidly to a plateau (104–142 ng/mL) at 3–10 h before further gradual decline until the end of the 72-hour study. The terminal half-life (27.0 h), clearance (54.7 mL/h/kg) and volume of distribution (2.13 L/kg) of the venom for intramuscular route were not significantly different from the corresponding values for intravenous route, and the intramuscular bioavailability of the venom was estimated to be 41.6%.
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Mukherjee AK, Mackessy SP. Biochemical and pharmacological properties of a new thrombin-like serine protease (Russelobin) from the venom of Russell's Viper (Daboia russelii russelii) and assessment of its therapeutic potential. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2013; 1830:3476-88. [PMID: 23416064 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2013.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2012] [Revised: 02/04/2013] [Accepted: 02/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Snake venoms are rich sources of bioactive molecules, and several venom-derived proteins have entered clinical trials for use in ischemic disorders; however, late-stage failure of a recent drug candidate due to low in vivo efficacy demonstrated the need for new sources of fibrinogenolytic drug candidates. METHODS A 51.3kDa thrombin-like serine protease (Russelobin) purified from the venom of Russell's Viper (Daboia russelii russelii) was subjected to extensive biochemical characterization, including N-terminal sequencing, substrate specificity, kinetic and inhibitor assays, glycosylation analysis and stability assays. Toxicity and pathology analyses were conducted in NSA mice. RESULTS Russelobin has extensive N-terminus identity with a beta-fibrinogenase-like serine proteinase precursor from Daboia russelii siamensis venom, a mass of 51.3kDa and contains extensive N-linked oligosaccharides. Serine protease inhibitors and heparin significantly decreased activity, with much lower inhibition by DTT, antithrombin-III and α2-macroglobulin. Russelobin preferentially released FPA and slowly released FPB from human fibrinogen, forming a labile fibrin clot readily hydrolyzed by plasmin. The partially deglycosylated enzyme showed significantly lower activity toward fibrinogen and less resistance against neutralization by plasma α2MG and antithrombin-III. Russelobin was non-cytotoxic, non-lethal and produced no histopathologies in mice, and it demonstrated in vivo dose-dependent defibrinogenating activity. CONCLUSIONS Russelobin is an A/B fibrinogenase with high specificity toward fibrinogen, both in vitro and in vivo. Extensive glycosylation appears to protect the molecule against endogenous protease inhibitors, prolonging its in vivo efficacy. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Due to its low toxicity, stability and activity as a defibrinogenating agent, Russelobin shows high potential for cardiovascular drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashis K Mukherjee
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA
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