Biosensors in Parkinson's disease

Innovations in Biosensor Technologies for Healthcare Diagnostics and Therapeutic Drug Monitoring: Applications, Recent Progress, and Future Research Challenges

This comprehensive review delves into the forefront of biosensor technologies and their critical roles in disease biomarker detection and therapeutic drug monitoring. It provides an in-depth analysis of various biosensor types and applications, including enzymatic sensors, immunosensors, and DNA sensors, elucidating their mechanisms and specific healthcare applications. The review highlights recent innovations such as integrating nanotechnology, developing wearable devices, and trends in miniaturisation, showcasing their transformative potential in healthcare. In addition, it addresses significant sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and data security challenges, proposing strategic solutions to overcome these obstacles. It is envisaged that it will inform strategic decision-making, drive technological innovation, and enhance global healthcare outcomes by synthesising multidisciplinary insights.

Classification and applications of nanomaterials in vitro diagnosis

With the rapid development of clinical diagnosis and treatment, many traditional and conventional in vitro diagnosis technologies are unable to meet the demands of clinical medicine development. In this situation, nanomaterials are rapidly developing and widely used in the field of in vitro diagnosis. Nanomaterials have distinct size-dependent physical or chemical properties, and their optical, magnetic, electrical, thermal, and biological properties can be modulated at the nanoscale by changing their size, shape, chemical composition, and surface functional groups, particularly because they have a larger specific surface area than macromaterials. They provide an amount of space to modify different molecules on their surface, allowing them to detect small substances, nucleic acids, proteins, and microorganisms. Combining nanomaterials with in vitro diagnosis is expected to result in lower detection limits, higher sensitivity, and stronger selectivity. In this review, we will discuss the classfication and properties of some common nanomaterials, as well as their applications in protein, nucleic acids, and other aspect detection and analysis for in vitro diagnosis, especially on aging-related nanodiagnostics. Finally, it is summarized with guidelines for in vitro diagnosis.

RND3 modulates microglial polarization and alleviates neuroinflammation in Parkinson's disease by suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome activation

Neuroinflammation mediated by microglia plays an important role in the etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD). Rho family GTPase 3 (RND3) exerts anti-inflammatory effects and may act as a potential new inducer of neuroprotective phenotypes in microglia. However, whether RND3 can be used to regulate microglia activation or reduce neuroinflammation in PD remains elusive. The study investigated the microglia modulating effects and potential anti-inflammatory effects of RND3 in vivo and in vitro, using animal models of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced PD and cell models of BV-2 cells stimulated by LPS plus IFN-γ with or without RND3-overexpression. The results showed that RND3 was highly expressed in the MPTP-induced PD mouse model and BV-2 cells treated with LPS and IFN-γ. In vivo experiments confirmed that RND3 overexpression could modulate microglia phenotype and ameliorate MPTP-induced neuroinflammation through inhibiting activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). In vitro study showed that RND3 overexpression could attenuate the production of pro-inflammatory factors in BV2 cells stimulated by LPS and IFN-γ. Mechanistically, RND3 reduced the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome upon LPS and IFN-γ stimulation. Taken together, these findings suggest that RND3 modulates microglial polarization and alleviates neuroinflammation in Parkinson's disease by suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome activation.

6-Hydroxy-2,2,4-trimethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinoline Demonstrates Neuroprotective Properties in Experimental Parkinson's Disease by Enhancing the Antioxidant System, Normalising Chaperone Activity and Suppressing Apoptosis

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease, whereby disturbances within the antioxidant defence system, increased aggregation of proteins, and activation of neuronal apoptosis all have a crucial role in the pathogenesis. In this context, exploring the neuroprotective capabilities of compounds that sustain the effectiveness of cellular defence systems in neurodegenerative disorders is worthwhile. During this study, we assessed how 6-hydroxy-2,2,4-trimethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinoline (HTHQ), which has antioxidant properties, affects the functioning of the antioxidant system, the activity of NADPH-generating enzymes and chaperones, and the level of apoptotic processes in rats with rotenone-induced PD. Six groups of animals were formed for our experiment, each with 12 animals. These were: a control group, animals with rotenone-induced PD, rats with PD given HTHQ at a dose of 50 mg/kg, rats with PD given HTHQ at a dose of 25 mg/kg, animals with pathology who were administered a comparison drug rasagiline, and control animals who were administered HTHQ at a dose of 50 mg/kg. The study results indicate that administering HTHQ led to a significant decrease in oxidative stress in PD rats. The enhanced redox status in animal tissues was linked with the recovery of antioxidant enzyme activities and NADPH-generating enzyme function, as well as an upsurge in the mRNA expression levels of antioxidant genes and factors Nrf2 and Foxo1. Administering HTHQ to rats with PD normalized the chaperone-like activity and mRNA levels of heat shock protein 70. Rats treated with the compound displayed lower apoptosis intensity when compared to animals with pathology. Therefore, owing to its antioxidant properties, HTHQ demonstrated a beneficial impact on the antioxidant system, resulting in decreased requirements for chaperone activation and the inhibition of apoptosis processes triggered in PD. HTHQ at a dose of 50 mg/kg had a greater impact on the majority of the examined variables compared to rasagiline.

Recent Advances in Metallic Nanostructures-assisted Biosensors for Medical Diagnosis and Therapy

The field of nanotechnology has witnessed remarkable progress in recent years, particularly in its application to medical diagnosis and therapy. Metallic nanostructures-assisted biosensors have emerged as a powerful and versatile platform, offering unprecedented opportunities for sensitive, specific, and minimally invasive diagnostic techniques, as well as innovative therapeutic interventions. These biosensors exploit the molecular interactions occurring between biomolecules, such as antibodies, enzymes, aptamers, or nucleic acids, and metallic surfaces to induce observable alterations in multiple physical attributes, encompassing electrical, optical, colorimetric, and electrochemical signals. These interactions yield measurable data concerning the existence and concentration of particular biomolecules. The inherent characteristics of metal nanostructures, such as conductivity, plasmon resonance, and catalytic activity, serve to amplify both sensitivity and specificity in these biosensors. This review provides an in-depth exploration of the latest advancements in metallic nanostructures-assisted biosensors, highlighting their transformative impact on medical science and envisioning their potential in shaping the future of personalized healthcare.

Advancing biological investigations using portable sensors for detection of sensitive samples

Portable biosensors are emerged as powerful diagnostic tools for analyzing intricately complex biological samples. These biosensors offer sensitive detection capabilities by utilizing biomolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, microbes or microbial products, antibodies, and enzymes. Their speed, accuracy, stability, specificity, and low cost make them indispensable in forensic investigations and criminal cases. Notably, portable biosensors have been developed to rapidly detect toxins, poisons, body fluids, and explosives; they have proven invaluable in forensic examinations of suspected samples, generating efficient results that enable effective and fair trials. One of the key advantages of portable biosensors is their ability to provide sensitive and non-destructive detection of forensic samples without requiring extensive sample preparation, thereby reducing the possibility of false results. This comprehensive review provides an overview of the current advancements in portable biosensors for the detection of sensitive materials, highlighting their significance in advancing investigations and enhancing sensitive sample detection capabilities.

Nanosensors in the detection of antihypertension drugs, a golden step for medication adherence monitoring

Hypertension is associated with structural and functional changes in blood vessels with increased arteriosclerosis, vascular inflammation, and endothelial dysfunction. Decreased adherence (compliance) to antihypertensive medications contributes significantly to morbidity and mortality in hypertensive patients. Antihypertensive drugs (AHTDs) and lifestyle changes are the main cornerstones for treating hypertension. Several approaches have been described in the literature for determining AHTDs based on different analytical techniques. Amongst biosensors are one of the most attractive tools due to their inherent advantages. Biosensors are used for the detection of wide range of biomarkers as well as different drugs in past two decades. The main focus of the present study is to review the latest biosensors developed for the detection of AHTDs. Readers of the present study will be able to familiarize themselves with biosensors as advanced and modern diagnostic tools while reviewing the most widely used AHTDs. In the present study, the routine methods are first reviewed and while examining their advantages and disadvantages, biosensors have been introduced as ideal alternative tools.

Recent advances in the detection of glioblastoma, from imaging-based methods to proteomics and biosensors: A narrative review

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive type of cancer that originates in the cells called astrocytes, which support the functioning of nerve cells. It can develop in either the brain or the spinal cord and is also known as glioblastoma multiform. GBM is a highly aggressive cancer that can occur in either the brain or spinal cord. The detection of GBM in biofluids offers potential advantages over current methods for diagnosing and treatment monitoring of glial tumors. Biofluid-based detection of GBM focuses on identifying tumor-specific biomarkers in blood and cerebrospinal fluid. To date, different methods have been used to detect biomarkers of GBM, ranging from various imaging techniques to molecular approaches. Each method has its own strengths and weaknesses. The present review aims to scrutinize multiple diagnostic methods for GBM, with a focus on proteomics methods and biosensors. In other words, this study aims to provide an overview of the most significant research findings based on proteomics and biosensors for the diagnosis of GBM.

Metabolomic Footprint of Disrupted Energetics and Amino Acid Metabolism in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Perspectives for Early Diagnosis and Monitoring of Therapy

The prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) is increasing due to the aging population and improved longevity. They are characterized by a range of pathological hallmarks, including protein aggregation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and oxidative stress. The aim of this review is to summarize the alterations in brain energy and amino acid metabolism in Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and Huntington’s disease (HD). Based on our findings, we proposed a group of selected metabolites related to disturbed energy or mitochondrial metabolism as potential indicators or predictors of disease. We also discussed the hidden challenges of metabolomics studies in NDs and proposed future directions in this field. We concluded that biochemical parameters of brain energy metabolism disruption (obtained with metabolomics) may have potential application as a diagnostic tool for the diagnosis, prediction, and monitoring of the effectiveness of therapies for NDs. However, more studies are needed to determine the sensitivity of the proposed candidates. We suggested that the most valuable biomarkers for NDs studies could be groups of metabolites combined with other neuroimaging or molecular techniques. To attain clinically applicable results, the integration of metabolomics with other “omic” techniques might be required.

Identification of hub genes of Parkinson's disease through bioinformatics analysis

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disease, and there is still a lack of effective diagnostic and treatment methods. This study aimed to search for hub genes that might serve as diagnostic or therapeutic targets for PD. All the analysis was performed in R software. The expression profile data of PD (number: GSE7621) was acquired from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) associated with PD were screened by the “Limma” package of the R software. Key genes associated with PD were screened by the “WGCNA” package of the R software. Target genes were screened by merging the results of “Limma” and “WGCNA.” Enrichment analysis of target genes was performed by Gene Ontology (GO), Disease Ontology (DO), and Kyoto Enrichment of Genes and Genomes (KEGG). Machine learning algorithms were employed to screen for hub genes. Nomogram was constructed using the “rms” package. And the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) was plotted to detect and validate our prediction model sensitivity and specificity. Additional expression profile data of PD (number: GSE20141) was acquired from the GEO database to validate the nomogram. GSEA was used to determine the biological functions of the hub genes. Finally, RPL3L, PLEK2, PYCRL, CD99P1, LOC100133130, MELK, LINC01101, and DLG3-AS1 were identified as hub genes of PD. These findings can provide a new direction for the diagnosis and treatment of PD.

Efficient Entrapment of Alpha-Synuclein Biotinylated Antibody in KCC-1-NH-CS2 and Application for the Sensitive Diagnosis of Parkinson's Using Recognition of Biomarker: An Innovative Electrochemical Label-Free Immunosensor for the Biomedical Analysis of Neurodegenerative Diseases

The early detection of Parkinson's disease (PD) is a critical issue in terms of efficiency. Alpha-synuclein (α-Syn) is a biomarker in PD checks. Alpha-synuclein (α-syn) is the major constituent of Lewy bodies and a pathogenic hallmark of all synucleinopathies, including PDs, dementia with Lewy bodies, and multiple system atrophy. In this study, KCC-1-NH-CS₂ was conjugated with biotinylated Ab and entrapped in P(β-CD) polymer cavities. Using this approach, a novel electrochemical label-free immunosensor was designed for the quantification of α-syn in real human samples. For this purpose, the glassy carbon electrode electropolymerized with P(β-CD) biopolymer provided an excellent matrix for entrapping of KCC-1-NH-CS₂ loaded with the biotinylated antibody of α-syn. Using the chronoamperometric technique, the proposed immunosensor shows a suitable range of 0.02 to 64 ng/mL for the determination of α-syn. Additionally, a low limit of quantification of the engineered biosensor was obtained at 0.02 ng/mL. The developed immunosensor's adequate stability, sensitivity, and selectivity, together with its ease of manufacture, make it a promising diagnostic technique for further research. This study also will pave the way for further applications of the synergetic effect of β-CD and KCC-1-NH-CS₂ for biomedical analysis in the near future.

Electrochemical Aptasensors for Parkinson's Disease Biomarkers Detection

BACKGROUND

Biomarkers are characteristic molecules that can be measured as indicators of biological process status or condition, exhibiting special relevance in Parkinson's Disease (PD). This disease is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder very difficult to study given the site of pathology and due to a clinical phenotype that fluctuates over time. Currently there is no definitive diagnostic test, thus clinicians hope that the detection of crucial biomarkers will help to the symptomatic and presymptomatic diagnostics and providing surrogate endpoints to demonstrate the clinical efficacy of new treatments.

METHODS

Electrochemical aptasensors are excellent analytical tools that are used in the detection of PD biomarkers, as they are portable, easy to use, and perform real-time analysis.

RESULTS

In this review, we discuss the most important clinical biomarkers for PD, highlighting their physiological role and function in the disease. Herein, we review for the first time innovative aptasensors for the detection of current potential PD biomarkers based on electrochemical techniques and discuss future alternatives, including ideal analytical platforms for point-of-care diagnostics.

CONCLUSION

These new tools will be critical not only in the discovery of sensitive, specific, and reliable biomarkers of preclinical PD, but also in the development of tests that can assist in the early detection and differential diagnosis of parkinsonian disorders and in monitoring disease progression. Various methods for fixing aptamers onto the sensor surfaces, enabling quantitative and specific PD biomarker detection present in synthetic and clinical samples, will also be discussed.

Sensitive immunosensing of α-synuclein protein in human plasma samples using gold nanoparticles conjugated with graphene: an innovative immuno-platform towards early stage identification of Parkinson's disease using point of care (POC) analysis

Parkinson's disease (PD) or simply Parkinson's is a long-term degenerative disorder of the central nervous system, which mainly affects the motor system. Consequently, the detection and quantification of related biomarkers play vital roles in the early-stage diagnosis of PD. In the present study, an innovative electrochemical immunosensor based on gold nanoparticle-modified graphene towards bioconjugation with biotinylated antibody (bioreceptor) was developed for the ultra-sensitive and specific monitoring of the alpha-synuclein (α-synuclein) protein. The synergistic effects between the gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and graphene drastically enhanced the electrochemical activity of the resulting materials. The enhanced conductivity of the substrate together with the increase in its surface area improved the sensitivity and lowered the detection limit of the capture layer. For the first time, the α-synuclein protein was measured in human plasma samples using bioconjugated AuNP-Gr bioconjugated specific antibody with an acceptable linear range of 4 to 128 ng mL-1 and a lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) of 4 ng mL-1. Accordingly, it is expected that this diagnostic method may be produced in the near future for clinical applications and high-throughput screening of PD using point of care (POC) analysis.

Extracellular Vesicles as Novel Diagnostic and Prognostic Biomarkers for Parkinson's Disease

The elderly population will significantly increase in the next decade and, with it, the proportion of people affected by age-related diseases. Among them, one of the most invalidating is Parkinson's disease (PD), characterized by motor- and non-motor dysfunctions which strongly impair the quality of life of affected individuals. PD is characterized by the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons, with consequent dopamine depletion, and the accumulation of misfolded α-synuclein aggregates. Although 150 years have passed since PD first description, no effective therapies are currently available, but only palliative treatments. Importantly, PD is often diagnosed when the neuronal loss is elevated, making difficult any therapeutic intervention. In this context, two key challenges remain unanswered: (i) the early diagnosis to avoid the insurgence of irreversible symptoms; and (ii) the reliable monitoring of therapy efficacy. Research strives to identify novel biomarkers for PD diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutic follow-up. One of the most promising sources of biomarkers is represented by extracellular vesicles (EVs), a heterogeneous population of nanoparticles, released by all cells in the microenvironment. Brain-derived EVs are able to cross the blood-brain barrier, protecting their payload from enzymatic degradation, and are easily recovered from biofluids. Interestingly, EV content is strongly influenced by the specific pathophysiological status of the donor cell. In this manuscript, the role of EVs as source of novel PD biomarkers is discussed, providing all recent findings concerning relevant proteins and miRNAs carried by PD patient-derived EVs, from several biological specimens. Moreover, the contribution of mitochondria-derived EVs will be dissected. Finally, the promising possibility to use EVs as source of markers to monitor PD therapy efficacy will be also examined. In the future, larger cohort studies will help to validate these EV-associated candidates, that might be effectively used as non-invasive and robust source of biomarkers for PD.