Luminescent terbium complexes: Superior Förster resonance energy transfer donors for flexible and sensitive multiplexed biosensing

The pros and cons of nucleic acid-amplified immunoassays-a comparative study on the quantitation of prostate-specific antigen with and without rolling circle amplification

Integrating isothermal nucleic acid amplification strategies into immunoassays can significantly decrease analytical limits of detection (LODs). On the other hand, an amplification step adds time, complication, reagents, and costs to the assay format. To evaluate the pros and cons in the context of heterogeneous multistep immunoassays, we quantified prostate-specific antigen (PSA) with and without rolling circle amplification (RCA). In addition, we compared time-gated (TG) with continuous-wave (CW) photoluminescence (PL) detection using a terbium complex and a fluorescein dye, respectively. For both direct (non-amplified) and amplified assays, TG PL detection provided circa four- to eightfold lower LODs, illustrating the importance of autofluorescence background suppression even for multi-wash assay formats. Amplified assays required an approximately 2.4 h longer assay time but led to almost 100-fold lower LODs down to 1.3 pg/mL of PSA. Implementation of TG-FRET (using a Tb-Cy5.5 donor-acceptor pair) into the RCA immunoassay resulted in a slightly higher LOD (3.0 pg/mL), but the ratiometric detection format provided important benefits, such as higher reproducibility, lower standard deviations, and multiplexing capability. Overall, our direct comparison demonstrated the importance of biological background suppression even in heterogeneous assays and the potential of using isothermal RCA for strongly decreasing analytical LODs, making such assays viable alternatives to conventional enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs).

Enhanced Sensitivity and Accuracy of Tb3+-Functionalized Zirconium-Based Bimetallic MOF for Visual Detection of Malachite Green in Fish

The ratiometric fluorescent probe UiO-OH@Tb, a zirconium-based MOF functionalized with Tb3+, was synthesized using a hydrothermal method. This probe employs the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) mechanism between Tb3+ and malachite green (MG) for the double-inverse signal ratiometric fluorescence detection of MG. The probe's color shifts from lime green to blue with an increasing concentration of MG. In contrast, the monometallic MOFs' (UiO-OH) probe shows only blue fluorescence quenching due to the inner filter effect (IFE) after interacting with MG. Additionally, the composite fluorescent probe (UiO-OH@Tb) exhibits superior sensitivity, with a detection limit (LOD) of 0.19 μM, which is significantly lower than that of the monometallic MOFs (25 μM). Moreover, the content of MG can be detected on-site (LOD = 0.94 μM) using the RGB function of smartphones. Hence, the UiO-OH@Tb probe is proven to be an ideal material for MG detection, demonstrating significant practical value in real-world applications.

Cell-cell communication: new insights and clinical implications

Multicellular organisms are composed of diverse cell types that must coordinate their behaviors through communication. Cell-cell communication (CCC) is essential for growth, development, differentiation, tissue and organ formation, maintenance, and physiological regulation. Cells communicate through direct contact or at a distance using ligand-receptor interactions. So cellular communication encompasses two essential processes: cell signal conduction for generation and intercellular transmission of signals, and cell signal transduction for reception and procession of signals. Deciphering intercellular communication networks is critical for understanding cell differentiation, development, and metabolism. First, we comprehensively review the historical milestones in CCC studies, followed by a detailed description of the mechanisms of signal molecule transmission and the importance of the main signaling pathways they mediate in maintaining biological functions. Then we systematically introduce a series of human diseases caused by abnormalities in cell communication and their progress in clinical applications. Finally, we summarize various methods for monitoring cell interactions, including cell imaging, proximity-based chemical labeling, mechanical force analysis, downstream analysis strategies, and single-cell technologies. These methods aim to illustrate how biological functions depend on these interactions and the complexity of their regulatory signaling pathways to regulate crucial physiological processes, including tissue homeostasis, cell development, and immune responses in diseases. In addition, this review enhances our understanding of the biological processes that occur after cell-cell binding, highlighting its application in discovering new therapeutic targets and biomarkers related to precision medicine. This collective understanding provides a foundation for developing new targeted drugs and personalized treatments.

Step-wise changes in the excited state lifetime of [Eu(D2O)9]3+ and [Eu(DOTA)(D2O)]- as a function of the number of inner-sphere O-H oscillators

Lanthanide luminescence is dominated by quenching by high-energy oscillators in the chemical environment. The rate of non-radiative energy transfer to a single H2O molecule coordinated to a Eu3+ ion exceeds the usual rates of emission by an order of magnitude. We know these rates, but the details of these energy transfer processes are yet to be established. In this work, we study the quenching rates of [Eu(D2O)9]3+ and [Eu(DOTA)(D2O)]- in H2O/D2O mixtures by sequentially exchanging the deuterons with protons. Flash freezing the solutions allows us to identify species with various D/H contents in solution and thus to quantify the energy transfer processes to individual OH-oscillators. This is not possible in solution due to fast exchange in the ensembles present at room temperature. We conclude that the energy transfer processes are accurately described, predicted, and simulated using a step-wise addition of the rates of quenching by each O-H oscillator. This documents the sequential increase in the rate of the energy transfer processes in the quenching of lanthanide luminescence, and further provides a methodology to identify isotopic impurities in deuterated lanthanide systems in solution.

A review of biomolecules conjugated lanthanide up-conversion nanoparticles-based fluorescence probes in food safety and quality monitoring applications

Upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) are known to possess unique characteristics, which allow them to overcome a number of issues that plague traditional fluorescence probes. UCNPs have been employed in a variety of applications, but it is arguably in the realm of optical sensors where they have shown the most promise. Biomolecule conjugated UCNPs-based fluorescence probes have been developed to detect and quantify a wide range of analytes, from metal ions to biomolecules, with great specificity and sensitivity. In this review, we have given much emphasis on the recent trends and progress in the preparation strategies of bioconjugated UCNPs and their potential application as fluorescence sensors in the trace level detection of food industry-based toxicants and adulterants. The paper discusses the preparation and functionalisation strategies of commonly used biomolecules over the surface of UCNPs. The use of different sensing strategies namely heterogenous and homogenous assays, underlying fluorescence mechanisms in the detection process of food adulterants are summarized in detail. This review might set a precedent for future multidisciplinary research including the development of novel biomolecules conjugated UCNPs for potential applications in food science and technology.

Ordered hierarchical superlattice amplifies coated-CeO2 nanoparticles luminescence

Achieving a controlled preparation of nanoparticle superstructures with spatially periodic arrangement, also called superlattices, is one of the most intriguing and open questions in soft matter science. The interest in such regular superlattices originates from the potentialities in tailoring the physicochemical properties of the individual constituent nanoparticles, eventually leading to emerging behaviors and/or functionalities that are not exhibited by the initial building blocks. Despite progress, it is currently difficult to obtain such ordered structures; the influence of parameters, such as size, softness, interaction potentials, and entropy, are neither fully understood yet and not sufficiently studied for 3D systems. In this work, we describe the synthesis and characterization of spatially ordered hierarchical structures of coated cerium oxide nanoparticles in water suspension prepared by a bottom-up approach. Covering the CeO2 surface with amphiphilic molecules having chains of appropriate length makes it possible to form ordered structures in which the particles occupy well-defined positions. In the present case superlattice arrangement is accompanied by an improvement in photoluminescence (PL) efficiency, as an increase in PL intensity of the superlattice structure of up to 400 % compared with that of randomly dispersed nanoparticles was observed. To the best of our knowledge, this is one of the first works in the literature in which the coexistence of 3D structures in solution, such as face-centered cubic (FCC) and Frank-Kasper (FK) phases, of semiconductor nanoparticles have been related to their optical properties.

Mapping the distribution of electronic states within the 5D4 and 7F6 levels of Tb3+ complexes with optical spectroscopy

The Tb(III) ion has the most intense luminescence of the trivalent lanthanide(III) ions. In contrast to Eu(III), where the two levels only include a single state, the high number of electronic states in the ground (7F6) and emitting (5D4) levels makes detailed interpretations of the electronic structure-the crystal field-difficult. Here, luminescence emission and excitation spectra of Tb(III) complexes with 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA, [Tb(DOTA)(H2O)]-), ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA, [Tb(EDTA)(H2O)3]-) and diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA, [Tb(DTPA)(H2O)]2-) as well as the Tb(III) aqua ion ([Tb(H2O)9]3+) were recorded at room temperature and in frozen solution. Using these data the electronic structure of the 5D4 multiplets of Tb(III) was mapped by considering the transitions to the singly degenerate 7F0 state. A detailed spectroscopic investigation was performed and it was found that the 5D4 multiplet could accurately be described as a single band for [Tb(H2O)9]3+, [Tb(DOTA)(H2O)]- and [Tb(EDTA)(H2O)3]-. In contrast, for [Tb(DTPA)(H2O)]2- two bands were needed. These results demonstrated the ability of describing the electronic structure of the emitting 5D4 multiplet using emission spectra. This offers an avenue for investigating the relationship between molecular structure and luminescent properties in detailed photophysical studies of Tb(III) ion complexes.

Multiplexed DNA and Protease Detection with Orthogonal Energy Transfer on a Single Quantum Dot Scaffolded Biosensor

Almost all pathogens, whether viral or bacterial, utilize key proteolytic steps in their pathogenesis. The ability to detect a pathogen's genomic material along with its proteolytic activity represents one approach to identifying the pathogen and providing initial evidence of its viability. Here, we report on a prototype biosensor design assembled around a single semiconductor quantum dot (QD) scaffold that is capable of detecting both nucleic acid sequences and proteolytic activity by using orthogonal energy transfer (ET) processes. The sensor consists of a central QD assembled via peptidyl-PNA linkers with multiple DNA sequences that encode complements to genomic sequences originating from the Ebola, Influenza, and COVID-19 viruses, which we use as surrogate targets. These are hybridized to complement strands labeled with a terbium (Tb) chelate, AlexaFluor647 (AF647), and Cy5.5 dyes, giving rise to two potential FRET cascades: the first includes Tb → QD → AF647 → Cy5.5 (→ = ET step), which is detected in a time-gated modality, and QD → AF647 → Cy5.5, which is detected from direct excitation. The labeled DNA-displaying QD construct is then further assembled with a RuII-modified peptide, which quenches QD photoluminescence by charge transfer and is recognized by a protease to yield the full biosensor. Each of the labeled DNAs and peptides can be ratiometrically assembled to the QD in a controllable manner to tune each of the ET pathways. Addition of a given target DNA displaces its labeled complement on the QD, disrupting that FRET channel, while protease addition disrupts charge transfer quenching of the central QD scaffold and boosts its photoluminescence and FRET relay capabilities. Along with characterizing the ET pathways and verifying biosensing in both individual and multiplexed formats, we also demonstrate the ability of this construct to function in molecular logic and perform Boolean operations; this highlights the construct's ability to discriminate and transduce signals between different inputs or pathogens. The potential application space for such a sensor device is discussed.

Atomic/molecular layer deposition of europium-organic thin films on nanoplasmonic structures towards FRET-based applications

We present a novel atomic/molecular layer deposition (ALD/MLD) process for europium-organic thin films based on Eu(thd)3 and 2-hydroxyquinoline-4-carboxylic acid (HQA) precursors. The process yields with appreciably high growth rate luminescent Eu-HQA thin films in which the organic HQA component acts as a sensitizer for the red Eu3+ luminescence, extending the excitation wavelength range up to ca. 400 nm. We moreover deposit these films on nanoplasmonic structures to achieve a twentyfold enhanced emission intensity. Finally, we demonstrate the FRET-type energy transfer process for our Eu-HQA coated nanoplasmonic structures in combination with commercial Alexa647 fluorophor, underlining their potential towards novel bioimaging applications.

Engineering highly efficient NIR-II FRET platform for Background-Free homogeneous detection of SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies in whole blood

Förster or fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) enables to probe biomolecular interactions, thus playing a vital role in bioassays. However, conventional FRET platforms suffer from limited sensitivity due to the low FRET efficiency and poor anti-interference of existing FRET pairs. Here we report a NIR-II (1000-1700 nm) FRET platform with extremely high FRET efficiency and exceptional anti-interference capability. This NIR-II FRET platform is established based on a pair of lanthanides downshifting nanoparticles (DSNPs) by employing Nd³⁺ doped DSNPs as an energy donor and Yb³⁺ doped DSNPs as an energy acceptor. The maximum FRET efficiency of this well-engineered NIR-II FRET platform reaches up to 92.2%, which is much higher than most commonly used ones. Owing to the all-NIR advantage (λ_ex = 808 nm, λ_em = 1064 nm), this highly efficient NIR-II FRET platform exhibits extraordinary anti-interference in whole blood, and thus enabling background-free homogeneous detection of SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies in clinical whole blood sample with high sensitivity (limit of detection = 0.5 μg/mL) and specificity. This work opens up new opportunities for realizing highly sensitive detection of various biomarkers in biological samples with severe background interference.

Tb3+ Photophysics: Mapping Excited State Dynamics of [Tb(H2O)9]3+ Using Molecular Photophysics

The study of optical transitions in lanthanide(III) ions has evolved separately from molecular photophysics, but the framework still applies to these forbidden transitions. In this study, a detailed photophysical characterization of the [Tb(H₂O)₉]³⁺ aqua ion was performed. The luminescence quantum yield (Φ_lum), excited state lifetime (τ_obs), radiative (k_r ≡ A) and nonradiative (k_nr) rate constants, and oscillator strength (f) were determined for Tb(CF₃SO₃)₃ in H₂O/D₂O mixtures in order to map the radiative and nonradiative transition probabilities. It was shown that the intense luminescence observed from Tb³⁺ compared to other Ln³⁺ ions is not due to a higher transition probability of emission but rather due to a lack of quenching, quantified by quenching to O-H oscillators in the aqua ion of k_q(OH) = 2090 s^-1 for terbium and k_q(OH) = 8840 s^-1 for europium. In addition, the Horrocks method of determining inner-sphere solvent molecules has been revisited, and it was concluded that the Tb³⁺ is 9-coordinated in aqueous solution.

Dye-sensitized lanthanide containing nanoparticles for luminescence based applications

Due to their exceptional luminescent properties, lanthanide (Ln) complexes represent a unique palette of probes in the spectroscopic toolkit. Their extremely weak brightness due to forbidden Ln electronic transitions can be overcome by indirect dye-sensitization from the antenna effect brought by organic ligands. Despite the improvement brought by the antenna effect, (bio)analytical applications with discrete Ln complexes as luminescent markers still suffers from low sensitivity as they are limited by the complex brightness. Thus, there is a need to develop nano-objects that cumulate the spectroscopic properties of multiple Ln ions. This review firstly gives a brief introduction of the spectral properties of lanthanides both in complexes and in nanoparticles (NPs). Then, the research progress of the design of Ln-doped inorganic NPs with capping antennas, Ln-complex encapsulated NPs and Ln-complex surface functionalized NPs is presented along with a summary of the various photosensitizing ligands and of the spectroscopic properties (excited-state lifetime, brightness, quantum yield). The review also emphasizes the problems and limitations encountered over the years and the solutions provided to address them. Finally, a comparison of the advantages and drawbacks of the three types of NP is provided as well as a conclusion about the remaining challenges both in the design of brighter NPs and in the luminescence based applications.

A Dendrimer-Based Time-Gated Concentric FRET Configuration for Multiplexed Sensing

Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is widely used for the development of biological probes and sensors. In this context, the norm for multiplexed detection is deployment of multiple probes, each a discrete donor-acceptor pair. Concentric FRET (cFRET) probes enable multiplexed sensing with a single vector but, to date, have only been developed around semiconductor quantum dots, which may limit the scope of biological applications for such probes. Here, we demonstrate that dendrimers labeled with a luminescent terbium complex (Tb) are a viable and advantageous alternative platform for cFRET probes. Polyamidoamine dendrimers were functionalized with Tb, biotin, NeutrAvidin, and three types of dye-labeled oligonucleotide probes to establish a network of competitive and sequential Tb-to-dye and dye-to-dye FRET pathways. These probes were characterized physically and photophysically, and a time-gated multiplexed assay for DNA targets was demonstrated. The time-gating offered by the Tb allowed the rejection of background autofluorescence from serum. More broadly, this dendrimer-based architecture shows that cFRET is a general concept and is an important step toward a new generation of probes for biological sensing.

Rapid and Wash-Free Time-Gated FRET Histamine Assays Using Antibodies and Aptamers

Histamine (HA) is an indicator of food freshness and quality. However, high concentrations of HA can cause food poisoning. Simple, rapid, sensitive, and specific quantification can enable efficient screening of HA in food and beverages. However, conventional assays are complicated and time-consuming, as they require multiple incubation, washing, and separation steps. Here, we demonstrate that time-gated Förster resonance energy transfer (TG-FRET) between terbium (Tb) complexes and organic dyes can be implemented in both immunosensors and aptasensors for simple HA quantification using a rapid, single-step, mix-and-measure assay format. Both biosensors could quantify HA at concentrations relevant in food poisoning with limits of detection of 0.19 μg/mL and 0.03 μg/mL, respectively. Excellent specificity was documented against the structurally similar food components tryptamine and l-histidine. Direct applicability of the TG-FRET assays was demonstrated by quantifying HA in spiked fish and wine samples with both excellent concentration recovery and agreement with conventional multistep enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). Our results show that the simplicity and rapidity of TG-FRET assays do not compromise sensitivity, specificity, and reliability, and both immunosensors and aptasensors have a strong potential for their implementation in advanced food safety screening.

Multiplexed Biosensing and Bioimaging Using Lanthanide-Based Time-Gated Förster Resonance Energy Transfer

The necessity to scrutinize more and more biological molecules and interactions both in solution and on the cellular level has led to an increasing demand for sensitive and specific multiplexed diagnostic analysis. Photoluminescence (PL) detection is ideally suited for multiplexed biosensing and bioimaging because it is rapid and sensitive and there is an almost unlimited choice of fluorophores that provide a large versatility of photophysical properties, including PL intensities, spectra, and lifetimes.The most frequently used technique to detect multiple parameters from a single sample is spectral (or color) multiplexing with different fluorophores, such as organic dyes, fluorescent proteins, quantum dots, or lanthanide nanoparticles and complexes. In conventional PL biosensing approaches, each fluorophore requires a distinct detection channel and excitation wavelength. This drawback can be overcome by Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) from lanthanide donors to other fluorophore acceptors. The lanthanides' multiple and spectrally narrow emission bands over a broad spectral range can overlap with several different acceptors at once, thereby allowing FRET from one donor to multiple acceptors. The lanthanides' extremely long PL lifetimes provide two important features. First, time-gated (TG) detection allows for efficient suppression of background fluorescence from the biological environment or directly excited acceptors. Second, temporal multiplexing, for which the PL lifetimes are adjusted by the interaction with the FRET acceptor, can be used to determine specific biomolecules and/or their conformation via distinct PL decays. The high signal-to-background ratios, reproducible and precise ratiometric and homogeneous (washing-free) sensing formats, and higher-order multiplexing capabilities of lanthanide-based TG-FRET have resulted in significant advances in the analysis of biomolecular recognition. Applications range from fundamental analysis of biomolecular interactions and conformations to high-throughput and point-of-care in vitro diagnostics and DNA sequencing to advanced optical encoding, using both liquid and solid samples and in situ, in vitro, and in vivo detection with high sensitivity and selectivity.In this Account, we discuss recent advances in lanthanide-based TG-FRET for the development and application of advanced immunoassays, nucleic acid sensing, and fluorescence imaging. In addition to the different spectral and temporal multiplexing approaches, we highlight the importance of the careful design and combination of different biological, organic, and inorganic molecules and nanomaterials for an adjustable FRET donor-acceptor distance that determines the ultimate performance of the diagnostic assays and conformational sensors in their physiological environment. We conclude by sharing our vision on how progress in the development of new sensing concepts, material combinations, and instrumentation can further advance TG-FRET multiplexing and accelerate its translation into routine clinical practice and the investigation of challenging biological systems.

Bright and stable luminescent probes for target engagement profiling in live cells

The pace of progress in biomedical research directly depends on techniques that enable the quantitative interrogation of interactions between proteins and other biopolymers, or with their small-molecule ligands. Time-resolved Förster resonance energy transfer (TR-FRET) assay platforms offer high sensitivity and specificity. However, the paucity of accessible and biocompatible luminescent lanthanide complexes, which are essential reagents for TR-FRET-based approaches, and their poor cellular permeability have limited broader adaptation of TR-FRET beyond homogeneous and extracellular assay applications. Here, we report the development of CoraFluors, a new class of macrotricyclic terbium complexes, which are synthetically readily accessible, stable in biological media and exhibit photophysical and physicochemical properties that are desirable for biological studies. We validate the performance of CoraFluors in cell-free systems, identify cell-permeable analogs and demonstrate their utility in the quantitative domain-selective characterization of Keap1 ligands, as well as in isoform-selective target engagement profiling of HDAC1 inhibitors in live cells.

Photoluminescent Nanoparticles for Chemical and Biological Analysis and Imaging

Research related to the development and application of luminescent nanoparticles (LNPs) for chemical and biological analysis and imaging is flourishing. Novel materials and new applications continue to be reported after two decades of research. This review provides a comprehensive and heuristic overview of this field. It is targeted to both newcomers and experts who are interested in a critical assessment of LNP materials, their properties, strengths and weaknesses, and prospective applications. Numerous LNP materials are cataloged by fundamental descriptions of their chemical identities and physical morphology, quantitative photoluminescence (PL) properties, PL mechanisms, and surface chemistry. These materials include various semiconductor quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, graphene derivatives, carbon dots, nanodiamonds, luminescent metal nanoclusters, lanthanide-doped upconversion nanoparticles and downshifting nanoparticles, triplet-triplet annihilation nanoparticles, persistent-luminescence nanoparticles, conjugated polymer nanoparticles and semiconducting polymer dots, multi-nanoparticle assemblies, and doped and labeled nanoparticles, including but not limited to those based on polymers and silica. As an exercise in the critical assessment of LNP properties, these materials are ranked by several application-related functional criteria. Additional sections highlight recent examples of advances in chemical and biological analysis, point-of-care diagnostics, and cellular, tissue, and in vivo imaging and theranostics. These examples are drawn from the recent literature and organized by both LNP material and the particular properties that are leveraged to an advantage. Finally, a perspective on what comes next for the field is offered.

A cyclic peptide antenna ligand for enhancing terbium luminescence

We present here a cyclic peptide ligand, cy(WQETR), that binds to the terbium ion (Tb3+) and enhances Tb3+ luminescence intensity through the antenna effect. This peptide was identified through screening a cyclic peptide library against Tb3+ with an apparent EC50 of 540 μM. The tryptophan residue from the peptide directly interacts with the Tb3+ ion, which provides access to a low-lying triplet excited state of the tryptophan. Direct excitation of this triplet state enables energy transfer to the Tb3+ ion and enhances Tb3+ luminescence intensity by 150 fold. We further showcase the application of this cy(WQETR)-Tb3+ system by demonstrating the detection of tromethamine with a detection limit of 0.5 mM.

In Situ Rolling Circle Amplification Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (RCA-FRET) for Washing-Free Real-Time Single-Protein Imaging

Fluorescence signal enhancement via isothermal nucleic acid amplification is an important approach for sensitive imaging of intra- or extracellular nucleic acid or protein biomarkers. Rolling circle amplification (RCA) is frequently applied for fluorescence in situ imaging but faces limitations concerning multiplexing, dynamic range, and the required multiple washing steps before imaging. Here, we show that Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) between fluorescent dyes and between lanthanide (Ln) complexes and dyes that hybridize to β-actin-specific RCA products in HaCaT cells can afford washing-free imaging of single β-actin proteins. Proximity-dependent FRET could be monitored directly after or during (real-time monitoring) dye or Ln DNA probe incubation and could efficiently distinguish between photoluminescence from β-actin-specific RCA and DNA probes freely diffusing in solution or nonspecifically attached to cells. Moreover, time-gated FRET imaging with the Ln-dye FRET pairs efficiently suppressed sample autofluorescence and improved the signal-to-background ratio. Our results present an important proof of concept of RCA-FRET imaging with a strong potential to advance in situ RCA toward easier sample preparation, higher-order multiplexing, autofluorescence-free detection, and increased dynamic range by real-time monitoring of in situ RCA.

Enhancing FRET biosensing beyond 10 nm with photon avalanche nanoparticles

Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) between donor (D) and acceptor (A) molecules is a phenomenon commonly exploited to study or visualize biological interactions at the molecular level. However, commonly used organic D and A molecules often suffer from photobleaching and spectral bleed-through, and their spectral properties hinder quantitative analysis. Lanthanide-doped upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs) as alternative D species offer significant improvements in terms of photostability, spectral purity and background-free luminescence detection, but they bring new challenges related to multiple donor ions existing in a single large size UCNP and the need for nanoparticle biofunctionalization. Considering the relatively short Förster distance (typically below 5-7 nm), it becomes a non-trivial task to assure sufficiently strong D-A interaction, which translates directly to the sensitivity of such bio-sensors. In this work we propose a solution to these issues, which employs the photon avalanche (PA) phenomenon in lanthanide-doped materials. Using theoretical modelling, we predict that these PA systems would be highly susceptible to the presence of A and that the estimated sensitivity range extends to distances 2 to 4 times longer (i.e. 10-25 nm) than those typically found in conventional FRET systems. This promises high sensitivity, low background and spectral or temporal biosensing, and provides the basis for a radically novel approach to combine luminescence imaging and self-normalized bio-molecular interaction sensing.

Single-Chain Lanthanide Luminescence Biosensors for Cell-Based Imaging and Screening of Protein-Protein Interactions

Lanthanide-based, Förster resonance energy transfer (LRET) biosensors enabled sensitive, time-gated luminescence (TGL) imaging or multiwell plate analysis of protein-protein interactions (PPIs) in living cells. We prepared stable cell lines that expressed polypeptides composed of an alpha helical linker flanked by a Tb(III) complex-binding domain, GFP, and two interacting domains at each terminus. The PPIs examined included those between FKBP12 and the rapamycin-binding domain of m-Tor (FRB) and between p53 (1–92) and HDM2 (1–128). TGL microscopy revealed dramatic differences (>500%) in donor- or acceptor-denominated, Tb(III)-to-GFP LRET ratios between open (unbound) and closed (bound) states of the biosensors. We observed much larger signal changes (>2,500%) and Z′-factors of 0.5 or more when we grew cells in 96- or 384-well plates and analyzed PPI changes using a TGL plate reader. The modular design and exceptional dynamic range of lanthanide-based LRET biosensors will facilitate versatile imaging and cell-based screening of PPIs.

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Non-invasive, microscopic imaging or screening of protein-protein interactions

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Intracellular assembly of sensor polypeptides with luminescent Tb(III) complexes

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High dynamic range with time-gated detection of Tb(III)-to-GFP sensitized emission

Triplexed CEA-NSE-PSA Immunoassay Using Time-Gated Terbium-to-Quantum Dot FRET

Time-gated Förster resonance energy transfer (TG-FRET) between Tb complexes and luminescent semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) provides highly advantageous photophysical properties for multiplexed biosensing. Multiplexed Tb-to-QD FRET immunoassays possess a large potential for in vitro diagnostics, but their performance is often insufficient for their application under clinical conditions. Here, we developed a homogeneous TG-FRET immunoassay for the quantification of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), neuron-specific enolase (NSE), and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) from a single serum sample by multiplexed Tb-to-QD FRET. Tb–IgG antibody donor conjugates were combined with compact QD-F(ab’)₂ antibody acceptor conjugates with three different QDs emitting at 605, 650, and 705 nm. Upon antibody–antigen–antibody sandwich complex formation, the QD acceptors were sensitized via FRET from Tb, and the FRET ratios of QD and Tb TG luminescence intensities increased specifically with increasing antigen concentrations. Although limits of detection (LoDs: 3.6 ng/mL CEA, 3.5 ng/mL NSE, and 0.3 ng/mL PSA) for the triplexed assay were slightly higher compared to the single-antigen assays, they were still in a clinically relevant concentration range and could be quantified in 50 µL serum samples on a B·R·A·H·M·S KRYPTOR Compact PLUS clinical immunoassay plate reader. The simultaneous quantification of CEA, NSE, and PSA at different concentrations from the same serum sample demonstrated actual multiplexing Tb-to-QD FRET immunoassays and the potential of this technology for translation into clinical diagnostics.

A sensitive homogeneous enzyme assay for euchromatic histone-lysine-N-methyltransferase 2 (G9a) based on terbium-to-quantum dot time-resolved FRET

Introduction: Histone modifying enzymes include several classes of enzymes that are responsible for various post-translational modifications of histones such as methylation and acetylation. They are important epigenetic factors, which may involve several diseases and so their assay, as well as screening of their inhibitors, are of great importance. Herein, a bioassay based on terbium-to-quantum dot (Tb-to-QD) time-resolved Förster resonance energy transfer (TR-FRET) was developed for monitoring the activity of G9a, the euchromatic histone-lysine N-methyltransferase 2. Overexpression of G9a has been reported in some cancers such as ovarian carcinoma, lung cancer, multiple myeloma and brain cancer. Thus, inhibition of this enzyme is important for therapeutic purposes.

Methods: In this assay, a biotinylated peptide was used as a G9a substrate in conjugation with streptavidin-coated ZnS/CdSe QD as FRET acceptor, and an anti-mark antibody labeled with Tb as a donor. Time-resolved fluorescence was used for measuring FRET ratios.

Results: We examined three QDs, with emission wavelengths of 605, 655 and 705 nm, as FRET acceptors and investigated FRET efficiency between the Tb complex and each of them. Since the maximum FRET efficiency was obtained for Tb to QD705 (more than 50%), this pair was exploited for designing the enzyme assay. We showed that the method has excellent sensitivity and selectivity for the determination of G9a at concentrations as low as 20 pM. Furthermore, the designed assay was applied for screening of an enzyme inhibitor, S-(5’-Adenosyl)-L-homocysteine (SAH).

Conclusion: It was shown that Tb-to-QD FRET is an outstanding platform for developing a homogenous assay for the G9a enzyme and its inhibitors. The obtained results confirmed that this assay was quite sensitive and could be used in the field of inhibitor screening.

Terbium-to-quantum dot Förster resonance energy transfer for homogeneous and sensitive detection of histone methyltransferase activity

The development of rapid, simple, and versatile biosensors for monitoring the activity of histone modifying enzymes (HMEs) is needed for the improvement of diagnostic assays, screening of HME inhibitors, and a better understanding of HME kinetics in different environments. Nanoparticles can play an important role in this regard by improving or complementing currently available enzyme detection technologies. Here, we present the development and application of a homogeneous methyltransferase (SET7/9) assay based on time-gated Förster resonance energy transfer (TG-FRET) between terbium complexes (Tb) and luminescent semiconductor quantum dots (QDs). Specific binding of a Tb-antibody conjugate to a SET7/9-methylated Lys4 on a histone H3(1-21) peptide substrate attached to the QD surface resulted in efficient FRET and provided the mechanism for monitoring the SET7/9 activity. Two common peptide-QD attachment strategies (biotin-streptavidin and polyhistidine-mediated self-assembly), two different QD colors (625 and 705 nm), and enzyme sensing with post- or pre-assembled QD-peptide conjugates demonstrated the broad applicability of this assay design. Limits of detection in the low picomolar concentration range, high selectivity tested against non-specific antibodies, enzymes, and co-factors, determination of the inhibition constants of the SET7/9 inhibitors SAH and (R)-PFI-2, and analysis of the co-factor (SAM) concentration-dependent enzyme kinetics of SET7/9 which followed the Michaelis-Menten model highlighted the excellent performance of this TG-FRET HME activity assay.

Picomolar Biosensing and Conformational Analysis Using Artificial Bidomain Proteins and Terbium-to-Quantum Dot Förster Resonance Energy Transfer

Although antibodies remain a primary recognition element in all forms of biosensing, functional limitations arising from their size, stability, and structure have motivated the development and production of many different artificial scaffold proteins for biological recognition. However, implementing such artificial binders into functional high-performance biosensors remains a challenging task. Here, we present the design and application of Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) nanoprobes comprising small artificial proteins (αRep bidomains) labeled with a Tb complex (Tb) donor on the C-terminus and a semiconductor quantum dot (QD) acceptor on the N-terminus. Specific binding of one or two protein targets to the αReps induced a conformational change that could be detected by time-resolved Tb-to-QD FRET. These single-probe FRET switches were used in a separation-free solution-phase assay to quantify different protein targets at sub-nanomolar concentrations and to measure the conformational changes with sub-nanometer resolution. Probing ligand-receptor binding under physiological conditions at very low concentrations in solution is a special feature of FRET that can be efficiently combined with other structural characterization methods to develop, understand, and optimize artificial biosensors. Our results suggest that the αRep FRET nanoprobes have a strong potential for their application in advanced diagnostics and intracellular live-cell imaging of ligand-receptor interactions.

Long-Range Single-Molecule Förster Resonance Energy Transfer between Alexa Dyes in Zero-Mode Waveguides

Zero-mode waveguide (ZMW) nano-apertures milled in metal films were proposed to improve the Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) efficiency and enable single-molecule FRET detection beyond the 10 nm barrier, overcoming the restrictions of diffraction-limited detection in a homogeneous medium. However, the earlier ZMW demonstrations were limited to the Atto 550-Atto 647N fluorophore pair, asking the question whether the FRET enhancement observation was an artifact related to this specific set of fluorescent dyes. Here, we use Alexa Fluor 546 and Alexa Fluor 647 to investigate single-molecule FRET at large donor-acceptor separations exceeding 10 nm inside ZMWs. These Alexa fluorescent dyes feature a markedly different chemical structure, surface charge, and hydrophobicity as compared to their Atto counterparts. Our single molecule data on Alexa 546-Alexa 647 demonstrate enhanced FRET efficiencies at large separations exceeding 10 nm, extending the spatial range available for FRET and confirming the earlier conclusions. By showing that the FRET enhancement inside a ZMW does not depend on the set of fluorescent dyes, this report is an important step to establish the relevance of ZMWs to extend the sensitivity and detection range of FRET, while preserving its ability to work on regular fluorescent dye pairs.

Luminescent metal–organic frameworks encapsulating polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons for energy transfer

A novel MOF with a kaleidoscopic topology as an ideal host matrix that exhibits luminescence energy transfer and quenching behaviour in the presence of a photocatalytic sacrificial electron donor.

Quantification of Cellular Deoxyribonucleoside Triphosphates by Rolling Circle Amplification and Förster Resonance Energy Transfer

The quantification of cellular deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) levels is important for studying pathologies, genome integrity, DNA repair, and the efficacy of pharmacological drug treatments. Current standard methods, such as enzymatic assays or high-performance liquid chromatography, are complicated, costly, and labor-intensive, and alternative techniques that simplify dNTP quantification would present very useful complementary approaches. Here, we present a dNTP assay based on isothermal rolling circle amplification (RCA) and rapid time-gated Förster resonance energy transfer (TG-FRET), which used a commercial clinical plate reader system. Despite the relatively simple assay format, limits of detection down to a few picomoles of and excellent specificity for each dNTP against the other dNTPs, rNTPs, and dUTP evidenced the strong performance of the assay. Direct applicability of RCA-FRET to applied nucleic acid research was demonstrated by quantifying all dNTPs in CEM-SS leukemia cells with and without hydroxyurea or auranofin treatment. Both pharmacological agents could reduce the dNTP production in a time- and dose-dependent manner. RCA-FRET provides simple, rapid, sensitive, and specific quantification of intracellular dNTPs and has the potential to become an advanced tool for both fundamental and applied dNTP research.