B cells regulate macrophage phenotype and response to chemotherapy in squamous carcinomas

The immune cells have complex causal regulation effects on cancers

BACKGROUND

There was a large body of evidence linking immune cells to cancer risk. However, the causal relationship between immune cells, cancer, and what genes play an important role is unclear.

METHODS

In this study, we performed comprehensive two-sample Mendelian randomization analysis (TSMR) to determine the causal relationship between immune cells and common cancers. We also performed Multimarker Analysis of Genomic Annotation (MAGMA) on immune cells causally associated with cancer to identify their relevant genes and used data summary-based MR (SMR) analysis to investigate the causal relationship between their gene expression, methylation, and cancer, and further used drug prediction and molecular docking to validate the medicinal value of the targets. Finally, reverse TSMR analysis was performed on cancer and immune cells to rule out reverse causality.

RESULTS

After FDR correction (PFDR < 0.05), the results showed that 2 immune cells were associated with lung cancer risk, and 1 immune cell was significantly associated with pancreatic cancer risk. The expression of OSBPL10, CHD4, SMDT1, PHETA2, and NAGA was positively and causally related to the risk of lung cancer by SMR analysis and HEIDI test. We also found that increased expression of ANP32E decreased the risk of pancreatic cancer and that the methylation level of OSBPL10, CHD4, SULF2, CENPM, and CYP2D6 had a causal association with lung cancer. The methylation level of FCGR3A was causally associated with pancreatic cancer. The results of molecular docking indicated a strong affinity between the drugs and proteins that possessed existing structural information.

CONCLUSION

This data-driven Mendelian randomization (MR) study demonstrates the causal role of immune cells in cancers. In addition, this study identifies candidate genes that may be potential anti-cancer drug targets.

Tumor infiltrating B lymphocytes (TIBs) associate with poor clinical outcomes, unfavorable therapeutic benefit and immunosuppressive context in metastatic clear cell renal cell carcinoma (mccRCC) patients treated with anti-PD-1 antibody plus Axitinib

PURPOSE

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) plus tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) has become first-line therapy for metastatic renal cell carcinoma patients. This study aims to investigate the effect of tumor infiltrating B lymphocytes (TIBs) on the combination therapy.

METHODS

The retrospective analysis was conducted on the clinical records of 115 metastatic clear cell renal cell carcinoma (mccRCC) patients treated with anti-PD-1 antibody plus Axitinib between March 2020 and June 2023. Observation target: objective response rate (ORR), and overall survival (OS), progression-free survival (PFS) and immune profile.

RESULTS

Patients with high TIBs portended lower ORR of the combination therapy (p = 0.033). TIBs was an independent predictor for poorer OS (p = 0.013) and PFS (p = 0.021) in mccRCC patients with combination treatment. TIBs infiltration was associated with more CD4+T (p < 0.001), CD8+T (p < 0.001), M2 macrophages (p = 0.020) and regulatory T cells (Tregs) (p = 0.004). In TIBs high patients, the percentages of PD-1, CTLA-4 and TIM-3 positive rate were significantly increased in CD4+T (p = 0.038, 0.029 and 0.002 respectively) and CD8+T cells (p = 0.006, 0.026 and < 0.001 respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study revealed TIBs infiltration predicted adverse outcomes in mccRCC patients treated with anti-PD-1 antibody plus Axitinib. As a corollary, TIBs positively associated with M2 macrophages and Tregs, leading to subsequent multiple immune checkpoints related exhaustion of T cells. Thus, only PD-1 blockade are inadequate to reverse T cells exhaustion effectively in high TIBs mccRCC patients.

A blueprint for tumor-infiltrating B cells across human cancers

B lymphocytes are essential mediators of humoral immunity and play multiple roles in human cancer. To decode the functions of tumor-infiltrating B cells, we generated a B cell blueprint encompassing single-cell transcriptome, B cell-receptor repertoire, and chromatin accessibility data across 20 different cancer types (477 samples, 269 patients). B cells harbored extraordinary heterogeneity and comprised 15 subsets, which could be grouped into two independent developmental paths (extrafollicular versus germinal center). Tumor types grouped into the extrafollicular pathway were linked with worse clinical outcomes and resistance to immunotherapy. The dysfunctional extrafollicular program was associated with glutamine-derived metabolites through epigenetic-metabolic cross-talk, which promoted a T cell-driven immunosuppressive program. These data suggest an intratumor B cell balance between extrafollicular and germinal-center responses and suggest that humoral immunity could possibly be harnessed for B cell-targeting immunotherapy.

Characterization of macrophages in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma and development of MRG-based risk signature

Macrophages are immune cells in the TME that can not only inhibit angiogenesis, extracellular matrix remodeling, cancer cell proliferation, and metastasis but also mediate the phagocytosis and killing of cancer cells after activation, making them key targets in anti-tumor immunotherapy. However, there is little research on macrophages and their relation to disease prognosis in HNSCC. Initially, we collected scRNA-seq, bulk RNA-seq, and clinical data. Subsequently, we identified macrophages and distinguished MRGs. Using the K-means algorithm, we performed consensus unsupervised clustering. Next, we used ssGSEA analysis to assess immune cell infiltration in MRG clusters. A risk model was established using multivariate Cox analysis. Then, Kaplan-Meier, ROC curves, univariate and multivariate COX analyses, and C-index was used to validate the predictive power of the signature. The TIDE method was applied to assess the response to immunotherapy in patients diagnosed with HNSCC. In addition, drug susceptibility predictions were made for the GDSC database using the calcPhenotype function. We found that 8 MRGs had prognostic potential. Patients in the MRG group A had a higher probability of survival, and MRG clusters A and B had different characteristics. Cluster A had a higher degree of expression and infiltration in MRG, indicating a closer relationship with MRG. The accuracy of the signature was validated using univariate and multivariate Cox analysis, C-index, and nomogram. Immune landscape analysis found that various immune functions were highly expressed in the low-risk group, indicating an improved response to immunotherapy. Finally, drugs with high sensitivity to HNSCC (such as 5-Fluorouracil, Temozolomide, Carmustine, and EPZ5676) were explored and analyze the malignant characteristics of HNSCC. We constructed a prognostic model using multivariate Cox analysis, consisting of 8 MRGs (TGM2, STC1, SH2D3C, PIK3R3, MAP3K8, ITGA5, ARHGAP4, and AQP1). Patients in the low-risk group may have a higher response to immunotherapy. The more prominent drugs for drug selection are 5-fluorouracil, temozolomide and so on. Malignant features associated with HNSCC include angiogenesis, EMT, and the cell cycle. This study has opened up new prospects for the prognosis, prediction, and clinical treatment strategy of HNSCC.

Predicting Response to Immunotargeted Therapy in Endometrial Cancer via Tumor Immune Microenvironment: A Multicenter, Observational Study

Only one-third of patients with advanced MSS/pMMR endometrial cancer exhibit a lasting response to the combination treatment of Pembrolizumab and Lenvatinib. The combined administration of these two drugs is based on Lenvatinib's ability to modulate the tumor microenvironment, enabling Pembrolizumab to exert its effect. These findings underscore the importance of exploring tumor microenvironment parameters to identify markers that can accurately select candidates for this type of therapy. An open non-randomized observational association study was conducted at six clinical centers, involving a total of 28 patients with advanced MSS/pMMR endometrial cancer who received Pembrolizumab and Lenvatinib therapy. Using TSA-associated multiplex immunofluorescence, we analyzed the proportion of CD8+ T lymphocytes, CD20+ B lymphocytes, FoxP3+ T regulatory lymphocytes, and CD163+ macrophages in tumor samples prior to immunotargeted therapy. The percentage of CD20+ B lymphocytes and the CD8-to-CD20 lymphocytes ratio was significantly higher in patients who responded to treatment compared to non-responders (responders vs. non-responders: 0.24 (0.1-1.24)% vs. 0.08 (0.00-0.15)%, p = 0.0114; 1.44 (0.58-2.70) arb. unit vs. 19.00 (3.80-34.78) arb. unit, p = 0.0031). The sensitivity and specificity of these biomarkers were 85.71% and 70.59%, and 85.71% and 85.71%, respectively. The proportion of CD20+ B lymphocytes and the CD8-to-CD20 lymphocytes ratio in the stroma of endometrial cancer serves as both a prognostic marker of response to immunotargeted therapy and a prognostic factor for progression-free survival in patients.

Tea intake and lung diseases: a Mendelian randomization study

Background

Existing studies on the relationship between tea intake and lung diseases have yielded inconsistent results, leading to an ongoing dispute on this issue. The impact of tea consumption on the respiratory system remained elucidating.

Materials and methods

We conducted a two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) study to evaluate the associations between five distinct tea intake phenotypes and 15 different respiratory outcomes using open Genome-wide association study (GWAS) data. The inverse variance weighted (IVW) was used for preliminary screening and a variety of complementary methods were used as sensitivity analysis to validate the robustness of MR estimates. Pathway enrichment analysis was used to explore possible mechanisms.

Results

IVW found evidence for a causal effect of standard tea intake on an increased risk of lung squamous cell cancer (LSCC) (OR = 1.004; 95% CI = 1.001-1.007; P = 0.00299). No heterogeneity or pleiotropy was detected. After adjustment for potential mediators, including smoking, educational attainment, and time spent watching television, the association was still robust in multivariable MR. KEGG and GO enrichment predicted proliferation and activation of B lymphocytes may play a role in this causal relation. No causalities were observed when evaluating the effect of other kinds of tea intake on various pulmonary diseases.

Conclusion

Our MR estimates provide causal evidence of the independent effect of standard tea intake (black tea intake) on LSCC, which may be mediated by B lymphocytes. The results implied that the population preferring black tea intake should be wary of a higher risk of LSCC.

B cells in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: current opinion and novel therapy

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is a common malignant tumour. Despite advancements in surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy, which have improved the prognosis of most patients, a subset of patients with poor prognoses still exist due to loss of surgical opportunities, postoperative recurrence, and metastasis, among other reasons. The tumour microenvironment (TME) is a complex organization composed of tumour, stromal, and endothelial cells. Communication and interaction between tumours and immune cells within the TME are increasingly being recognized as pivotal in inhibiting or promoting tumour development. Previous studies on T cells in the TME of HNSCC have yielded novel therapeutic possibilities. However, the function of B cells, another adaptive immune cell type, in the TME of HNSCC patients has yet to be determined. Recent studies have revealed various distinct subtypes of B cells and tertiary lymphoid structures (TLSs) in the TME of HNSCC patients, which are believed to impact the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). Therefore, this paper focuses on B cells in the TME to explore potential directions for future immunotherapy for HNSCC.

The dichotomy of regulatory B cells in cancer versus allergic disease

Regulatory B cells (Bregs) are an immunosuppressive cell phenotype that affects the immune system by limiting the inflammatory cascade. Dysregulation of Bregs can interestingly play a dichotomous role in the pathophysiology of many diseases and is especially highlighted when examining cancer pathology compared to allergic disease. This study reviews the existing literature on Bregs and compares their role in allergic disease in contrast to cancer development. Upregulation of Bregs in cancer states has been associated with poor prognostic outcomes across various cancer types, and Breg proliferation was associated with chronic interferon signaling, activation of the BCR-BTK (B cell receptor-Bruton's tyrosine kinase) pathway, and release of C-X-C motif ligand 13. In contrast, Breg dysfunction has been identified as a key mechanism in many allergic diseases, such as allergic asthma, allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, and contact dermatitis. Development of Breg-targeted immunotherapies is currently at the preclinical level, but strategies differentially focus on Breg depletion in cancer versus Breg stimulation in allergy. Our review highlights the divergent functions that Bregs play in cancer compared to allergy. We conclude that natural homeostasis hinges on a fine balance between the dichotomous role of Bregs-over or underactivation can result in a pathological state.

Glucose metabolism of TAMs in tumor chemoresistance and metastasis

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are critical in promoting tumor progression and therapeutic resistance. In adapting to metabolic changes in the tumor microenvironment (TME), TAMs reprogram their metabolisms and acquire immunosuppressive and pro-tumor properties. Increased glucose metabolism in TAMs leads to the accumulation of a variety of oncometabolites that exhibit potent tumor-promoting capacity via regulating gene expression and signaling transduction. Glucose uptake also fuels O-GlcNAcylation and other post-translational modifications to promote pro-tumor polarization and function of TAMs. Glucose metabolism coordinates interactions between TAMs and various types of cells in the TME, creating a complex network that facilitates tumor progression. Targeting glucose metabolism represents a promising strategy to switch TAMs from pro-tumor toward anti-tumor function for cancer therapy.

Exploring the dual role of B cells in solid tumors: implications for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

In the tumor milieu of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), distinct B cell subpopulations are present, which exert either pro- or anti-tumor activities. Multiple factors, including hypoxia, cytokines, interactions with tumor cells, and other immune infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), alter the equilibrium between the dual roles of B cells leading to cancerogenesis. Certain B cell subsets in the tumor microenvironment (TME) exhibit immunosuppressive function. These cells are known as regulatory B (Breg) cells. Breg cells suppress immune responses by secreting a series of immunosuppressive cytokines, including IL-10, IL-35, TGF-β, granzyme B, and adenosine or dampen effector TILs by intercellular contacts. Multiple Breg phenotypes have been discovered in human and mouse cancer models. However, when compartmentalized within a tertiary lymphoid structure (TLS), B cells predominantly play anti-tumor effects. A mature TLS contains a CD20+ B cell zone with several important types of B cells, including germinal-center like B cells, antibody-secreting plasma cells, and memory B cells. They kill tumor cells via antibody-dependent cytotoxicity and phagocytosis, and local complement activation effects. TLSs are also privileged sites for local T and B cell coordination and activation. Nonetheless, in some cases, TLSs may serve as a niche for hidden tumor cells and indicate a bad prognosis. Thus, TIL-B cells exhibit bidirectional immune-modulatory activity and are responsive to a variety of immunotherapies. In this review, we discuss the functional distinctions between immunosuppressive Breg cells and immunogenic effector B cells that mature within TLSs with the focus on tumors of HNSCC patients. Additionally, we review contemporary immunotherapies that aim to target TIL-B cells. For the development of innovative therapeutic approaches to complement T-cell-based immunotherapy, a full understanding of either effector B cells or Breg cells is necessary.

Physiological and immune profiling of tilapia Oreochromis niloticus gills by high-throughput single-cell transcriptome sequencing

The physiological and immune functions of fish gills are largely recognized, but their following functional heterogeneity at the single cell scale has been rarely reported. Here, we performed single cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) on the gills of tilapia fish Oreochromis niloticus. We identified a total of 12 cell populations and analyzed their functional heterogeneity. To investigate the physiological function of O. niloticus gills, expression patterns of genes encoding ion transporters were selected from the identified H+-ATPase-rich cells (HR cells), Na+/K+-ATPase-rich cells (NaR cells), and pavement cells. Specific enrichment of ca4a, slc9a1a, and LOC100692482 in the HR cells of O. niloticus gills explained their functions in acid-base regulation. Genes encoding Ca2+ transporters, including atp2b1, LOC100696627, and LOC 100706765, were specifically expressed in the NaR cells. Pavement cells were presumably the main sites responsible for ammonia and urea transports in O. niloticus gills with specific enrichment of Rhbg and LOC100693008, respectively. The expression patterns of the four immune cell subtypes varied greatly, with B cells being enriched with the most immune-related GO terms. KEGG enrichment analysis showed that MAPK signaling pathway was the most enriched pathway among the four types of immune cells in O. niloticus gills. Our results are important in understanding the physiological and immune responses of fish gills at the cellular resolution.

Prognostic utility of TME-associated genes in pancreatic cancer

Background: Pancreatic cancer (PC) is a deadly disease. The tumor microenvironment (TME) participates in PC oncogenesis. This study focuses on the assessment of the prognostic and treatment utility of TME-associated genes in PC. Methods: After obtaining the differentially expressed TME-related genes, univariate and multivariate Cox analyses and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) were performed to identify genes related to prognosis, and a risk model was established to evaluate risk scores, based on The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) data set, and it was validated by external data sets from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and Clinical Proteomic Tumor Analysis Consortium (CPTAC). Multiomics analyses were adopted to explore the potential mechanisms, discover novel treatment targets, and assess the sensitivities of immunotherapy and chemotherapy. Results: Five TME-associated genes, namely, FERMT1, CARD9, IL20RB, MET, and MMP3, were identified and a risk score formula constructed. Next, their mRNA expressions were verified in cancer and normal pancreatic cells. Multiple algorithms confirmed that the risk model displayed a reliable ability of prognosis prediction and was an independent prognostic factor, indicating that high-risk patients had poor outcomes. Immunocyte infiltration, gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA), and single-cell analysis all showed a strong relationship between immune mechanism and low-risk samples. The risk score could predict the sensitivity of immunotherapy and some chemotherapy regimens, which included oxaliplatin and irinotecan. Various latent treatment targets (LAG3, TIGIT, and ARID1A) were addressed by mutation landscape based on the risk model. Conclusion: The risk model based on TME-related genes can reflect the prognosis of PC patients and functions as a novel set of biomarkers for PC therapy.

A review on immunomodulatory effects of BPA analogues

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a known endocrine disruptor found in many consumer products that humans come into contact with on a daily basis. Due to increasing concerns about the safety of BPA and the introduction of new legislation restricting its use, industry has responded by adopting new, less studied BPA analogues that have similar polymer-forming properties. Some BPA analogues have already been shown to exhibit effects similar to BPA, for example, contributing to endocrine disruption through agonistic or antagonistic behaviour at various nuclear receptors such as estrogen (ER), androgen (AR), glucocorticoid (GR), aryl hydrocarbon (AhR), and pregnane X receptor (PXR). Since the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) issued a draft re-evaluation of BPA and drastically reduced the temporary tolerable daily intake (t-TDI) of BPA from 4 mg/kg body weight/day to 0.2 ng/kg body weight/day due to increasing concern about the toxic properties of BPA, including its potential to disrupt immune system processes, we conducted a comprehensive review of the immunomodulatory activity of environmentally abundant BPA analogues. The results of the review suggest that BPA analogues may affect both the innate and acquired immune systems and can contribute to various immune-mediated conditions such as hypersensitivity reactions, allergies, and disruption of the human microbiome.

Identification of a humanized mouse model for functional testing of immune-mediated biomaterial foreign body response

Biomedical devices comprise a major component of modern medicine, however immune-mediated fibrosis and rejection can limit their function over time. Here, we describe a humanized mouse model that recapitulates fibrosis following biomaterial implantation. Cellular and cytokine responses to multiple biomaterials were evaluated across different implant sites. Human innate immune macrophages were verified as essential to biomaterial rejection in this model and were capable of cross-talk with mouse fibroblasts for collagen matrix deposition. Cytokine and cytokine receptor array analysis confirmed core signaling in the fibrotic cascade. Foreign body giant cell formation, often unobserved in mice, was also prominent. Last, high-resolution microscopy coupled with multiplexed antibody capture digital profiling analysis supplied spatial resolution of rejection responses. This model enables the study of human immune cell-mediated fibrosis and interactions with implanted biomaterials and devices.

Evaluation of the association of chronic inflammation and cancer: Insights and implications

Among the most extensively researched processes in the development and treatment of cancer is inflammatory condition. Although acute inflammation is essential for the wound healing and reconstruction of tissues that have been damaged, chronic inflammation may contribute to the onset and growth of a number of diseases, including cancer. By disrupting the signaling processes of cells, which result in cancer induction, invasion, and development, a variety of inflammatory molecules are linked to the development of cancer. The microenvironment surrounding the tumor is greatly influenced by inflammatory cells and their subsequent secretions, which also contribute significantly to the tumor's growth, survivability, and potential migration. These inflammatory variables have been mentioned in several publications as prospective diagnostic tools for anticipating the onset of cancer. Targeting inflammation with various therapies can reduce the inflammatory response and potentially limit or block the proliferation of cancer cells. The scientific medical literature from the past three decades has been studied to determine how inflammatory chemicals and cell signaling pathways related to cancer invasion and metastasis are related. The current narrative review updates the relevant literature while highlighting the specifics of inflammatory signaling pathways in cancer and their possible therapeutic possibilities.

Combination Therapy as a Promising Way to Fight Oral Cancer

Oral cancer is a highly aggressive tumor with invasive properties that can lead to metastasis and high mortality rates. Conventional treatment strategies, such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy, alone or in combination, are associated with significant side effects. Currently, combination therapy has become the standard practice for the treatment of locally advanced oral cancer, emerging as an effective approach in improving outcomes. In this review, we present an in-depth analysis of the current advancements in combination therapies for oral cancer. The review explores the current therapeutic options and highlights the limitations of monotherapy approaches. It then focuses on combinatorial approaches that target microtubules, as well as various signaling pathway components implicated in oral cancer progression, namely, DNA repair players, the epidermal growth factor receptor, cyclin-dependent kinases, epigenetic readers, and immune checkpoint proteins. The review discusses the rationale behind combining different agents and examines the preclinical and clinical evidence supporting the effectiveness of these combinations, emphasizing their ability to enhance treatment response and overcome drug resistance. Challenges and limitations associated with combination therapy are discussed, including potential toxicity and the need for personalized treatment approaches. A future perspective is also provided to highlight the existing challenges and possible resolutions toward the clinical translation of current oral cancer therapies.

The tumor immune microenvironment of nasopharyngeal carcinoma after gemcitabine plus cisplatin treatment

Gemcitabine plus cisplatin (GP) chemotherapy is the standard of care for nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). However, the mechanisms underpinning its clinical activity are unclear. Here, using single-cell RNA sequencing and T cell and B cell receptor sequencing of matched, treatment-naive and post-GP chemotherapy NPC samples (n = 15 pairs), we show that GP chemotherapy activated an innate-like B cell (ILB)-dominant antitumor immune response. DNA fragments induced by chemotherapy activated the STING type-I-interferon-dependent pathway to increase major histocompatibility complex class I expression in cancer cells, and simultaneously induced ILB via Toll-like receptor 9 signaling. ILB further expanded follicular helper and helper type 1 T cells via the ICOSL-ICOS axis and subsequently enhanced cytotoxic T cells in tertiary lymphoid organ-like structures after chemotherapy that were deficient for germinal centers. ILB frequency was positively associated with overall and disease-free survival in a phase 3 trial of patients with NPC receiving GP chemotherapy ( NCT01872962 , n = 139). It also served as a predictor for favorable outcomes in patients with NPC treated with GP and immunotherapy combined treatment (n = 380). Collectively, our study provides a high-resolution map of the tumor immune microenvironment after GP chemotherapy and uncovers a role for B cell-centered antitumor immunity. We also identify and validate ILB as a potential biomarker for GP-based treatment in NPC, which could improve patient management.

B cells in the tumor microenvironment: Multi-faceted organizers, regulators, and effectors of anti-tumor immunity

Our understanding of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) is rapidly expanding beyond T cell-centric perspectives to include B cells and plasma cells, collectively referred to as TIL-Bs. In many cancers, TIL-Bs carry strong prognostic significance and are emerging as key predictors of response to immune checkpoint inhibitors. TIL-Bs can perform multiple functions, including antigen presentation and antibody production, which allow them to focus immune responses on cognate antigen to support both T cell responses and innate mechanisms involving complement, macrophages, and natural killer cells. In the stroma of the most immunologically "hot" tumors, TIL-Bs are prominent components of tertiary lymphoid structures, which resemble lymph nodes structurally and functionally. Additionally, TIL-Bs participate in a variety of other lympho-myeloid aggregates and engage in dynamic interactions with the tumor stroma. Here, we summarize our current understanding of TIL-Bs in human cancer, highlighting the compelling therapeutic opportunities offered by their unique tumor recognition and effector mechanisms.

UBC9 deficiency enhances immunostimulatory macrophage activation and subsequent antitumor T cell response in prostate cancer

The role of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), along with the regulatory mechanisms underlying distinct macrophage activation states, remains poorly understood in prostate cancer (PCa). Herein, we report that PCa growth in mice with macrophage-specific Ubc9 deficiency is substantially suppressed compared with that in wild-type littermates, an effect partially ascribed to the augmented CD8+ T cell response. Biochemical and molecular analyses revealed that signal transducer and activator of transcription 4 (STAT4) is a crucial UBC9-mediated SUMOylation target, with lysine residue 350 (K350) as the major modification site. Site-directed mutation of STAT4 (K350R) enhanced its nuclear translocation and stability, thereby facilitating the proinflammatory activation of macrophages. Importantly, administration of the UBC9 inhibitor 2-D08 promoted the antitumor effect of TAMs and increased the expression of PD-1 on CD8+ T cells, supporting a synergistic antitumor efficacy once it combined with the immune checkpoint blockade therapy. Together, our results demonstrate that ablation of UBC9 could reverse the immunosuppressive phenotype of TAMs by promoting STAT4-mediated macrophage activation and macrophage-CD8+ T cell crosstalk, which provides valuable insights to halt the pathogenic process of tumorigenesis.

A timeline of tumour-associated macrophage biology

Tumour progression is modulated by the local microenvironment. This environment is populated by many immune cells, of which macrophages are among the most abundant. Clinical correlative data and a plethora of preclinical studies in mouse models of cancers have shown that tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) play a cancer-promoting role. Within the primary tumour, TAMs promote tumour cell invasion and intravasation and tumour stem cell viability and induce angiogenesis. At the metastatic site, metastasis-associated macrophages promote extravasation, tumour cell survival and persistent growth, as well as maintain tumour cell dormancy in some contexts. In both the primary and metastatic sites, TAMs are suppressive to the activities of cytotoxic T and natural killer cells that have the potential to eradicate tumours. Such activities suggest that TAMs will be a major target for therapeutic intervention. In this Perspective article, we chronologically explore the evolution of our understanding of TAM biology put into the context of major enabling advances in macrophage biology.

Exosomal lncRNA HOTAIR induces PDL1+ B cells to impede anti-tumor immunity in colorectal cancer

Regulatory B cells (Bregs) contribute to tumor immunosuppression. However, how B cells acquire their regulatory features in tumors remain unclear. Exosomes are important messengers that transmit tumor information to remodel tumor immunity. Here we revealed that tumor-derived exosomes drive Bregs to suppress anti-tumor immunity by delivering long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). HOTAIR was screened by lncRNA profiling in both colorectal cancer (CRC)-derived exosomes and infiltrating B cells. Tumor-derived HOTAIR polarized B cells toward a regulatory feature marked by programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PDL1) in CRC, and induced PDL1⁺ B cells to suppress CD8⁺ T cell activity. Exosomal HOTAIR bound to and protected pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) against ubiquitination degradation, resulting in STAT3 activation and PDL1 expression. Results from CRC patients showed a positive correlation between exosomal HOTAIR and tumor-infiltrating PDL1⁺ B cells. These findings reveal how B cells acquire PDL1-dominant regulatory feature in CRC, implying the clinical significance of exosomal therapy targeting HOTAIR.

Yin and yang roles of B lymphocytes in solid tumors: Balance between antitumor immunity and immune tolerance/immunosuppression in tumor-draining lymph nodes

The role of B cells in antitumor immunity has been reported to be either promotive or suppressive, but the specific mechanism remains to be comprehensively understood. However, this complicated situation likely depends on the temporal and spatial relationship between the developing tumor and B cells that recognize tumor antigens. Unlike responses against microbial or pathogenic infections, tumor cells are derived from autologous cells that have mutated and become aberrant; thus, elimination by the adaptive immune system is essentially inefficient. If tumor cells can evade immune attack at an early stage, non-destructive responses, such as tolerance and immunosuppression, are established over time. In tumor-draining lymph nodes (TDLNs), tumor antigen-reactive B cells potentially acquire immunoregulatory phenotypes and contribute to an immunosuppressive microenvironment. Therefore, triggering and enhancing antitumor responses by immunotherapies require selective control of these regulatory B cell subsets in TDLNs. In contrast, B cell infiltration and formation of tertiary lymphoid structures in tumors are positively correlated with therapeutic prognosis, suggesting that tumor antigen-specific activation of B cells and antibody production are advantageous for antitumor immunity in mid- to late-stage tumors. Given that the presence of B cells in tumor tissues may reflect the ongoing antitumor response in TDLNs, therapeutic induction and enhancement of these lymphocytes are expected to increase the overall effectiveness of immunotherapy. Therefore, B cells are promising targets, but the spatiotemporal balance of the subsets that exhibit opposite characteristics, that is, the protumor or antitumor state in TDLNs, should be understood, and strategies to separately control their functions should be developed to maximize the clinical outcome.

Tertiary lymphoid structures are critical for cancer prognosis and therapeutic response

Tertiary lymphoid structures (TLSs) are ectopic lymphocyte aggregates that form at sites of chronic inflammation, including cancers, in non-lymphoid tissues. Although the formation of TLSs is similar to that of secondary lymphoid organs, the pathogenic factors leading to TLS formation in cancerous tissues and the mechanisms underlying the role of these structures in the intra-tumoral adaptive antitumor immune response are not fully understood. The presence of TLSs may impact patient prognosis and treatment outcomes. This review examines the current understanding of TLSs in cancers, including their composition and formation as well as their potential to predict prognosis and therapeutic efficacy. We also summarize strategies to induce TLS formation for cancer treatment.

Impact of interaction networks of B cells with other cells on tumorigenesis, progression and response to immunotherapy of renal cell carcinoma: A review

Ample evidence indicates that the development and progression of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) are complex pathological processes involving interactions between tumor cells, immune cells and stromal components. Tumor infiltrated immune cells determine whether tumor advancement is promoted or inhibited. Among them, infiltrated B lymphocytes are present in all stages of RCC, playing a major role in determining tumor formation and advancement, as an essential part in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Although the advent of targeted and immune therapies has remarkably improved the survival of patients with advanced RCC, few cases can achieve complete response due to drug resistance. In this review article, we intend to summary the recent studies that outline the interaction networks of B cells with other cells, discuss the role of B cells in RCC development and progression, and assess their impact on RCC immunotherapy.

A Systematic Review on the Impact of Hypofractionated and Stereotactic Radiotherapy on Immune Cell Subpopulations in Cancer Patients

We investigated how hypofractionated radiotherapy (HFRT) and stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) may impact immune cells in different type of tumors. A systematic review was performed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The PubMed, Embase and Cochrane databases were searched. Overall, 11 studies met the inclusion criteria and were eligible for the present analysis. Both HFRT and SBRT have different impact on lymphocyte subpopulations, confirming their immunomodulatory effect which may have a crucial role in future combined treatment with new emergent therapies such as immunotherapy. Further studies are needed to shed more light on this emerging topic to ultimately improve patient care, treatment and clinical benefits for cancer patients.

Identification of Two Novel Immune Subtypes Characterized by Distinct Prognosis and Tumor Microenvironment in Osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma is a kind of primary malignant tumor of bone. In recent years, its therapeutic effect and prognostic survival are dissatisfactory. The tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) reflects immune status of patients, but it is little known in osteosarcoma. Therefore, this study attempts to conduct a comprehensive analysis to explore TIME of osteosarcoma and identify TIME-related subtypes for clinical management and treatment. We successfully established two novel tumor immune infiltration clusters (TIIC) which are characterized by difference of microenvironment and immune-related biological processes. High tumor immune infiltration cluster (H-TIIC) subtypes with higher immune infiltration score shows a better overall survival. Further, the two immune subtypes are shown to differ in immunotherapy and chemotherapy. The results would be helpful for clinical decision in osteosarcoma.

B cell deficiency promotes the initiation and progression of lung cancer

Currently commercialized CAR-T cell therapies targeting CD19 and BCMA show great efficacy to cure B cell malignancies. However, intravenous infusion of these CAR-T cells severely destroys both transformed and normal B cells in most tissues and organs, in particular lung, leading to a critical question that what the impact of normal B cell depletion on pulmonary diseases and lung cancer is. Herein, we find that B cell frequency is remarkably reduced in both smoking carcinogen-treated lung tissues and lung tumors, which is associated with advanced cancer progression and worse patient survival. B cell depletion by anti-CD20 antibody significantly accelerates the initiation and progression of lung tumors, which is mediated by repressed tumor infiltration of T cells and macrophage elimination of tumor cells. These findings unveil the overall antitumor activity of B cells in lung cancer, providing novel insights into both mechanisms underlying lung cancer pathogenesis and clinical prevention post CAR-T cell therapy.

Systems Medicine Design based on Systems Biology Approaches and Deep Neural Network for Gastric Cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) is the third leading cause of cancer death in the world. It is associated with the stimulation of microenvironment, aberrant epigenetic modification, and chronic inflammation. However, few researches discuss the GC molecular progression mechanisms from the perspective of the system level. In this study, we proposed a systems medicine design procedure to identify essential biomarkers and find corresponding drugs for GC. At first, we did big database mining to construct candidate protein-protein interaction network (PPIN) and candidate gene regulation network (GRN). Second, by leveraging the next-generation sequencing (NGS) data, we performed system modeling and applied system identification and model selection to obtain real genome-wide genetic and epigenetic networks (GWGENs). To make the real GWGENs easy to analyze, the principal network projection method was used to extract the core signaling pathways denoted by KEGG pathways. Subsequently, based on the identified biomarkers, we trained a deep neural network of drug-target interaction (DeepDTI) with supervised learning and filtered our candidate drugs considering drug regulation ability and drug sensitivity. With the proposed systematic strategy, we not only shed the light on the progression of GC but also suggested potential multiple-molecule drugs efficiently.

Emerging concepts regarding pro- and anti tumor properties of B cells in tumor immunity

Controversial views regarding the roles of B cells in tumor immunity have existed for several decades. However, more recent studies have focused on its positive properties in antitumor immunity. Many studies have demonstrated a close association of the higher density of intratumoral B cells with favorable outcomes in cancer patients. B cells can interact with T cells as well as follicular dendritic cells within tertiary lymphoid structures, where they undergo a series of biological events, including clonal expansion, somatic hypermutation, class switching, and tumor-specific antibody production, which may trigger antitumor humoral responses. After activation, B cells can function as effector cells via direct tumor-killing, antigen-presenting activity, and production of tumor-specific antibodies. At the other extreme, B cells can obtain inhibitory functions by relevant stimuli, converting to regulatory B cells, which serve as an immunosuppressive arm to tumor immunity. Here we summarize our current understanding of the bipolar properties of B cells within the tumor immune microenvironment and propose potential B cell-based immunotherapeutic strategies, which may help promote cancer immunotherapy.

DDOST Correlated with Malignancies and Immune Microenvironment in Gliomas

Among the most common types of brain tumor, gliomas are the most aggressive and have the poorest prognosis. Dolichyl-diphosphooligosaccharide protein glycosyltransferase non-catalytic subunit (DDOST) encodes a component of the oligosaccharide transferase complex and is related to the N-glycosylation of proteins. The role of DDOST in gliomas, however, is not yet known. First, we performed a pan cancer analysis of DDOST in the TCGA cohort. The expression of DDOST was compared between glioma and normal brain tissues in the GEO and Chinese Glioma Genome Atlas (CGGA) databases. In order to explore the role of DDOST in glioma, we analyze the impact of DDOST on the prognosis of glioma patients, with the CGGA 325 dataset as a test set and the CGGA 693 dataset as a validation set. Immunohistochemistry was performed on tissue microarrays to examine whether DDOST has an impact on glioma patient survival. Next, using single-cell sequencing analysis, GSEA, immune infiltration analysis, and mutation analysis, we explored how DDOST affected the glioma tumor microenvironment. Finally, we evaluated the clinical significance of DDOST for glioma treatment by constructing nomograms and decision curve analysis (DCA) curves. We found that DDOST was overexpressed in patients with high grade, IDH wild type, 1p19q non-codel and MGMT un-methylated, which was associated with poor prognosis. Patients with high levels of DDOST, regardless of their clinical characteristics, had a worse prognosis. Immunohistochemical analysis confirmed the results of the above bioinformatics analysis. Mechanistic analysis revealed that DDOST was closely associated with the glioma microenvironment and negatively related to tumor-infiltrating B cells and CD4+ T cells and positively related to CAFs and tumor-associated macrophages. In conclusion, these findings suggested that DDOST mediated the immunosuppressive microenvironment of gliomas and could be an important biomarker in diagnosing and treating gliomas.

Prognostic value of tumor-infiltrating CD163+macrophage in patients with metastatic gastric cancer undergoing multidisciplinary treatment

BACKGROUND

The multidisciplinary treatment including induction chemotherapy plus conversion surgery (CS) has attracted attention as a new strategy to improve the outcome of metastatic gastric cancer (MGC). However, it is unclear which patients achieve a good response to chemotherapy and successful CS. Tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TIICs) have been reported to be both prognostic and predictive biomarkers not only in immunotherapy but also in chemotherapy in many cancer types. However, there have been no reports on the usefulness of TIICs as biomarkers in conversion surgery for MGC. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the association between the TIICs and treatment outcome for the multidisciplinary treatment in MGC.

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed 68 MGC patients who received docetaxel plus cisplatin plus S-1 (DCS) therapy between April 2006 and March 2019 in our institute. The number of tumor-infiltrating CD4+, CD8+, Foxp3+lymphocytes, CD68+, CD163+macrophages in pre-treatment endoscopic biopsy samples were evaluated to investigate their predictive value for multidisciplinary treatment.

RESULTS

Fifty patients underwent CS following DCS therapy (CS group), whereas 18 patients underwent DCS therapy alone (non-CS group). The median survival time (MST) of CS group was 33.3 months, which was significantly longer than the MST of 9.0 months in non-CS group (p < 0.01). The number of CD163+macrophages was extracted as an independent prognostic factor for overall survival in all patients. There were more cases of high infiltration of CD163+macrophages in non-CS group than in CS group. Furthermore, in CS group, pathological responders to DCS therapy showed low infiltration of CD163+ macrophages, and high infiltration of CD8+lymphocyte. CD163 low group showed a significant prolonged survival compared with CD163 high group in patients who underwent CS (p = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

The pre-treatment CD163+macrophages infiltration would be a pivotal biomarker for predicting prognosis and pathological response to multidisciplinary treatment among TIICs in MGC. Thus, for patients with low CD163+macrophage infiltration in pre-treatment biopsy sample, diagnostic imaging should be performed frequently during chemotherapy to avoid missing the optimal timing for CS, and CS should be aggressively considered as a treatment option if curative resection is deemed feasible.

Ex vivo-expanded human CD19+TIM-1+ regulatory B cells suppress immune responses in vivo and are dependent upon the TIM-1/STAT3 axis

Regulatory B cells (Breg) are a heterogenous population with immune-modulating functions. The rarity of human IL-10⁺ Breg makes translational studies difficult. Here we report ex vivo expansion of human B cells with in vivo regulatory function (expBreg). CD154-stimulation of human CD19⁺ B cells drives >900-fold expansion of IL-10⁺ B cells that is maintained in culture for 14 days. Whilst expBreg-mediated suppressive function is partially dependent on IL-10 expression, CRISPR-mediated gene deletions demonstrate predominant roles for TIM-1 and CD154. TIM-1 regulates STAT3 signalling and modulates downstream suppressive function. In a clinically relevant humanised mouse model of skin transplantation, expBreg prolongs human allograft survival. Meanwhile, CD19⁺CD73^-CD25⁺CD71⁺TIM-1⁺CD154⁺ Breg cells are enriched in the peripheral blood of human donors with cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). TIM-1⁺ and pSTAT3⁺ B cells are also identified in B cell clusters within histological sections of human cutaneous SCC tumours. Our findings thus provide insights on Breg homoeostasis and present possible targets for Breg-related therapies.

CXCL13 as a Novel Immune Checkpoint for Regulatory B Cells and Its Role in Tumor Metastasis

Tumor metastasis is the primary cause of mortality in patients with cancer. Several chemokines are identified as important mediators of tumor growth and/or metastasis. The level of CXCL13 has been reported to be elevated in serum or tumor tissues in patients, which mainly functions to attract B cells and follicular B helper T cells. However, the role of CXCL13 in cancer growth and metastasis is not fully explored. In the current study, we found that CXCL13 is not a strong mediator to directly promote tumor growth; however, the mice deficient in CXCL13 had far fewer pulmonary metastatic foci than did the wild-type mice in experimental pulmonary metastatic models. In addition, Cxcl13 ^-/- mice also had fewer IL-10-producing B cells (CD45⁺CD19⁺IL-10⁺) in the metastatic tumor immune microenvironment than those of wild-type C57BL/6 mice, resulting in an enhanced antitumor immunity. Notably, CXCL13 deficiency further improved the efficacy of a traditional chemotherapeutic drug (cyclophosphamide), as well as that of anti-programmed death receptor-1 immunotherapy. These results suggested that CXCL13 has an important role in regulating IL-10-producing B cells in tumor metastasis and might be a promising target for improving therapeutic efficiency and stimulating tumor immunity in future cancer therapy.

Immunosuppressive niche engineering at the onset of human colorectal cancer

The evolutionary dynamics of tumor initiation remain undetermined, and the interplay between neoplastic cells and the immune system is hypothesized to be critical in transformation. Colorectal cancer (CRC) presents a unique opportunity to study the transition to malignancy as pre-cancers (adenomas) and early-stage cancers are frequently resected. Here, we examine tumor-immune eco-evolutionary dynamics from pre-cancer to carcinoma using a computational model, ecological analysis of digital pathology data, and neoantigen prediction in 62 patient samples. Modeling predicted recruitment of immunosuppressive cells would be the most common driver of transformation. As predicted, ecological analysis reveals that progressed adenomas co-localized with immunosuppressive cells and cytokines, while benign adenomas co-localized with a mixed immune response. Carcinomas converge to a common immune "cold" ecology, relaxing selection against immunogenicity and high neoantigen burdens, with little evidence for PD-L1 overexpression driving tumor initiation. These findings suggest re-engineering the immunosuppressive niche may prove an effective immunotherapy in CRC.

Role of macrophages in tumor progression and therapy (Review)

The number and phenotype of macrophages are closely related to tumor growth and prognosis. Macrophages are recruited to (and polarized at) the tumor site thereby promoting tumor growth, stimulating tumor angiogenesis, facilitating tumor cell migration, and creating a favorable environment for subsequent colonization by (and survival of) tumor cells. These phenomena contribute to the formation of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) and therefore speed up tumor cell proliferation and metastasis and reduce the efficacy of antitumor factors and therapies. The ability of macrophages to remodel the TME through interactions with other cells and corresponding changes in their number, activity, and phenotype during conventional therapies, as well as the association between these changes and drug resistance, make tumor-associated macrophages a new target for antitumor therapies. In this review, advantages and limitations of the existing antitumor strategies targeting macrophages in Traditional Chinese and Western medicine were analyzed, starting with the effect of macrophages on tumors and their interactions with other cells and then the role of macrophages in conventional treatments was explored. Possible directions of future developments in this field from an all-around multitarget standpoint were also examined.

B cells and tertiary lymphoid structures as determinants of tumour immune contexture and clinical outcome

B cells are a major component of the tumour microenvironment, where they are predominantly associated with tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS). In germinal centres within mature TLS, B cell clones are selectively activated and amplified, and undergo antibody class switching and somatic hypermutation. Subsequently, these B cell clones differentiate into plasma cells that can produce IgG or IgA antibodies targeting tumour-associated antigens. In tumours without mature TLS, B cells are either scarce or differentiate into regulatory cells that produce immunosuppressive cytokines. Indeed, different tumours vary considerably in their TLS and B cell content. Notably, tumours with mature TLS, a high density of B cells and plasma cells, as well as the presence of antibodies to tumour-associated antigens are typically associated with favourable clinical outcomes and responses to immunotherapy compared with those lacking these characteristics. However, polyclonal B cell activation can also result in the formation of immune complexes that trigger the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by macrophages and neutrophils. In complement-rich tumours, IgG antibodies can also activate the complement cascade, resulting in the production of anaphylatoxins that sustain tumour-promoting inflammation and angiogenesis. Herein, we review the phenotypic heterogeneity of intratumoural B cells and the importance of TLS in their generation as well as the potential of B cells and TLS as prognostic and predictive biomarkers. We also discuss novel therapeutic approaches that are being explored with the aim of increasing mature TLS formation, B cell differentiation and anti-tumour antibody production within tumours.

Depleting Tumor Infiltrating B Cells to Boost Antitumor Immunity with Tumor Immune-Microenvironment Reshaped Hybrid Nanocage

Tumor infiltrating B cells (TIBs)-dependent immunotherapy has emerged as a promising method for tumor treatment. Depleting TIBs to boost antitumor immunity is a highly desirable yet challenging approach to TIBs-dependent immunotherapy. Herein, a tumor immune-microenvironment reshaped hybrid nanocage CPN-NLI/MLD coloaded with the Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitor ibrutinib, and cytotoxic drug docetaxel was developed for stepwise targeting TIBs and tumor cells, respectively. The tumor microenvironment responsive CPN-NLI/MLD promoted charge reversal and size reduction under acidic conditions (pH < 6.5). The accumulation of CPN-NLI/MLD in tumor tissues was achieved through CD13 targeting, and cellular uptake was increased due to the differ-targeting delivery. Targeting of docetaxel to tumor cells was achieved by the interaction of α-MSH modified on inner docetaxel-particle MLD and melanocortin-1 receptor on the surface of tumor cells. Targeting of ibrutinib to TIBs was achieved by the interaction of Neu5Ac modified on inner ibrutinib-particle NLI and CD22 on the surface of TIBs. The boosted antitumor immunity was achieved mainly by the inhibition of Bruton's tyrosine kinase activation mediated by ibrutinib, which reduced the proportion of TIBs, enhanced infiltration of CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T cells, increased the secretion of immunogenic cytokines including IL-2 and IFN-γ, and inhibited the proliferation of regulatory T cells and secretion of immunosuppressive cytokines including IL-10, IL-4, and TGF-β. Furthermore, CPN-NLI/MLD improved the antitumor efficiency of chemoimmunotherapy by reshaping tumor immune-microenvironment by TIBs depletion. Taken together, CPN-NLI/MLD represents a promising method for effective tumor treatment and combination therapy by TIBs-dependent immunotherapy.

B cells in pancreatic cancer stroma

Pancreatic cancer is a disease with high unmet clinical need. Pancreatic cancer is also characterised by an intense fibrotic stroma, which harbours many immune cells. Studies in both human and animal models have demonstrated that the immune system plays a crucial role in modulating tumour onset and progression. In human pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, high B-cell infiltration correlates with better patient survival. Hence, B cells have received recent interest in pancreatic cancer as potential therapeutic targets. However, the data on the role of B cells in murine models is unclear as it is dependent on the pancreatic cancer model used to study. Nevertheless, it appears that B cells do organise along with other immune cells such as a network of follicular dendritic cells (DCs), surrounded by T cells and DCs to form tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS). TLS are increasingly recognised as sites for antigen presentation, T-cell activation, B-cell maturation and differentiation in plasma cells. In this review we dissect the role of B cells and provide directions for future studies to harness the role of B cells in treatment of human pancreatic cancer.

B-Lymphocytes in the Pathophysiology of Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is highly infiltrated by B lymphocytes but the relevance of these immune cells in tumor development has been surprisingly overlooked until recently. Based on available evidence from other solid tumors, interaction between B lymphocytes and neoplastic cells is probably not uniformly stimulatory or inhibitory. Although presentation of tumor antigens to T cells and production of antitumor immunoglobulins might intuitively suggest a prominent tumor suppressive activity, specific subsets of B lymphocytes can secrete growth factors for neoplastic cells and immunosuppressive cytokines thus promoting escape from immunosurveillance and cancer progression. Because many of these mechanisms might also be implicated in the development of PDAC, and immune-modulation of B-cell activity is nowadays possible at different levels, determining the role of B-lymphocytes in this lethal cancer becomes of utmost importance to design novel therapeutic strategies. This review aims to discuss the emerging role of B cells in PDAC tumorigenesis, progression, and associated stromal reaction.

Long-Term Recruitment of Endogenous M2 Macrophages by Platelet Lysate-Rich Plasma Macroporous Hydrogel Scaffold for Articular Cartilage Defect Repair

After cartilage damage, a large number of monocytes/macrophages infiltrate into adjacent synovium and the resident macrophages in synovial tissue transform to activated macrophages (M1), which secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines to induce sustained inflammation and chondrocyte apoptotic. However, current clinical therapies for cartilage repair can rarely achieve long-term anti-inflammatory regulation and satisfactory outcomes. Herein, a platelet lysate-rich plasma macroporous hydrogel (PLPMH) scaffold with around 100 µm pore size and 1.25 MPa Young's modulus is developed to sustainedly recruit and polarize endogenous anti-inflammatory macrophages (M2) for improving cartilage defect repair. PLPMH scaffold can steadily release sphingosine1-phosphate and proteins via gradual degradation, thus inducing M2 macrophages migration or resting (M0) macrophages migration and then polarization to M2 phenotype, and improving the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, PLPMH scaffold exhibits negligible inflammatory responses in vivo and promotes endogenous M2 macrophage infiltration in large numbers and long-time duration to provide a local anti-inflammatory microenvironment, which even lasts for 42 d. In a rabbit model of cartilage defect, PLPMH scaffold increases the ratio of M2 macrophages and improves cartilage tissue regeneration. These studies support that PLPMH scaffold may have a great potential in articular cartilage tissue engineering by providing an anti-inflammatory and pro-regenerative microenvironment.

Rituximab in combination with gemcitabine plus cisplatin in patients with recurrent and metastatic head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: a phase I trial

Background

The treatment of recurrent or metastatic head and neck squamous-cell carcinoma (R/M HNSCC) remains challenging. Preclinical studies revealed that B cell depletion could modulate the microenvironment and overcome chemoresistance. We conducted a phase I study to evaluate the feasibility and safety of B cell depletion using the anti-CD20 antibody rituximab to treat HNSCC.

Methods

Ten patients were enrolled in two protocols. The first four patients treated using protocol 1 received rituximab 1000 mg on days −14 and −7, followed by gemcitabine/cisplatin every 3 weeks, and rituximab was administered every 6 months thereafter. Because of disease hyperprogression, protocol 1 was amended to protocol 2, which consisted of the concomitant administration of rituximab 375 mg/m² and gemcitabine/cisplatin every 3 weeks. Another six patients were enrolled and treated using protocol 2.

Results

Three patients treated using protocol 1 exhibited rapid disease progression, and the remaining patient could not undergo evaluation after rituximab treatment. Conversely, no unpredicted harm was observed in the six patients treated using protocol 2. Among these patients, one achieved complete response, and two had partial responses. The disease-free durations in these patients were 7.0, 6.2, and 7.1 months, respectively. Immune cell analysis revealed a higher ratio of cytotoxic T cells to regulatory T cells in responders than in non-responders.

Conclusions

B cell depletion using rituximab alone in patients with HNSCC can cause hyperprogressive disease. Contrarily, the co-administration of rituximab and cisplatin/gemcitabine was feasible and safe.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04361409, 24 April 2020, retrospectively registered

The role of B cells in the development, progression, and treatment of lymphomas and solid tumors

B cells are integral components of the mammalian immune response as they have the ability to generate antibodies against an almost infinite array of antigens. Over the past several decades, significant scientific progress has been made in understanding that this enormous B cell diversity contributes to pathogen clearance. However, our understanding of the humoral response to solid tumors and to tumor-specific antigens is unclear. In this review, we first discuss how B cells interact with other cells in the tumor microenvironment and influence the development and progression of various solid tumors. The ability of B lymphocytes to generate antibodies against a diverse repertoire of antigens and subsequently tailor the humoral immune response to specific pathogens relies on their ability to undergo genomic alterations during their development and differentiation. We will discuss key transforming events that lead to the development of B cell lymphomas. Overall, this review provides a foundation for innovative therapeutic interventions for both lymphoma and solid tumor malignancies.

Immune-instructive materials as new tools for immunotherapy

Immune instructive materials, are materials with the ability to modulate or mimic the function of immune cells, provide exciting opportunities for developing new therapies in many areas including medical devices, chronic inflammation, cancer, and autoimmune diseases. In this review we highlight some of the latest research involving material-based strategies for modulating macrophage phenotype and dendritic cell function, as well as a brief description on biomaterial use in T cell and natural killer cell engineering. We highlight studies on material topography, size, shape and surface chemistry to reduce inflammation, along with scaffold and hydrogel delivery systems that are used for modulating DC phenotype and influencing T cell polarization. Artificial antigen presenting cells are also reviewed as a promising approach to cancer immunotherapy.

Pro- and Anti- Effects of Immunoglobulin A- Producing B Cell in Tumors and Its Triggers

B cells are well known as key mediators of humoral immune responses via the production of antibodies. Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is the most abundantly produced antibody isotype and provides the first line of immune protection at mucosal surfaces. However, IgA has long been a divisive molecule with respect to tumor progression. IgA exerts anti- or pro-tumor effect in different tumor types. In this review, we summarize emerging evidence regarding the production and effects of IgA and IgA⁺ cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Moreover, we discuss that the TME cytokines, host diet, microbiome, and metabolites play a pivotal role in controlling the class-switch recombination (CSR) of IgA. The analysis of intratumoral Ig repertoires and determination of metabolites that influence CSR may help establish novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of cancers.

Novel omics technology driving translational research in precision oncology

In this review, we summarize the current challenges faced by cancer researchers and motivate the use of novel genomics solutions. We follow this up with a comprehensive overview of three recent genomics technologies: liquid biopsy, single-cell RNA sequencing and spatial transcriptomics. We discuss a few representative protocols/assays for each technology along with their strengths, weaknesses, optimal use-cases, and their current stage of clinical deployment by summarizing trial data. We focus on how these technologies help us develop a better understanding of cancer as a rapidly evolving heterogeneous genetic disease that modulates its immediate microenvironment leading to systemic macro-level changes in the patient body. We summarize the review with a flowchart that integrates these three technologies in the existing workflows of clinicians and researchers toward robust detection, accurate diagnosis, and precision oncology.

The Role of B Cells in Head and Neck Cancer

Simple Summary

Host immunity has established its role in deciding the course of cancer evolution. As cellular and molecular components in the tumor microenvironment peripherally appear to be at a constant interplay, favoring either tumor control or progression, it is vital to decrypt the immunity elements, which demonstrate the potential to be harnessed towards cancer elimination. Head and neck cancer has been characterized as densely immune infiltrated but at the same time a highly immunosuppressive malignancy due to a negative equilibrium between active and dysfunctional immune cell populations. B-cells constitute the cornerstone of humoral immunity; however, their role in cancer has been vastly overlooked in comparison to other immune subtypes and reports from multiple studies fail to show agreement on their prognostic impact. This review focuses on the role of B-cells on head and neck cancer with the aim to highlight their effect on anti-cancer immunity, as well as their possible impact on immunotherapy outcomes.

Abstract

Head and neck cancer comprises a heterogenous, highly immune infiltrated malignancy, defined by a predominantly immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). In recent years, PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint inhibitors have become the standard of care treatment, either as monotherapy or in combination with chemotherapy agents, thus revolutionizing the therapeutic landscape of recurrent/metastatic disease. As a result, preclinical research is increasingly focusing on TME composition and pathophysiology, aiming to comprehensively characterize the specific elements and interactions affecting anti-tumor immunity, as well as to unveil novel predictive biomarkers of immunotherapy outcomes. While T lymphocytic populations have been vastly explored regarding their effect on cancer development, B-cells constitute a far less investigated, yet possibly equally important, aspect of cancer immunity. B-cell presence, either as single cells or as part of tertiary lymphoid structures within the TME, has been associated with several anti-tumor defense mechanisms, such as antigen presentation, antibody production and participation in antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity, and has demonstrated prognostic significance for multiple types of malignancies. However, immunoregulatory B-cell phenotypes have also been identified both peripherally and within malignant tissue, bearing inhibitory effects on numerous immune response processes. Consequently, B-cells and their subsets demonstrate the potential to become valuable cancer biomarkers and acquire a leading role in future therapeutic strategies.

Significance of intratumoral infiltration of B cells in cancer immunotherapy: From a single cell perspective

Immunotherapy for cancer has provided new treatment approaches for malignant tumors, but there are low rates of response and high rates of resistance. The most recent sequencing method which is called single-cell RNA sequencing(scRNA-seq) determines the transcriptome at the single cell level, which allows high-resolution dynamic monitoring of the tumor microenvironment (TME) during immunotherapy. As an important part of humoral immunity, tumor-infiltrated B cells have been reported to have distinct functions in anti-tumor immunity, which are characterized by their RNA transcriptome, membrane surface receptors, and immunoglobulin secretion, suggesting great immunotherapeutic effects. On the basis of the important roles of B cells in immunotherapy reported in recent publications, we discuss the tumor-infiltrated B cells' subpopulations, differentiation trajectory, and interactions with other cells in the TME in this review, hoping to illustrate its significance in potential clinical application as biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

Mirage or long-awaited oasis: reinvigorating T-cell responses in pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is plagued by a dismal 5-year survival rate, early onset of metastasis and limited efficacy of systemic therapies. This scenario highlights the need to fervently pursue novel therapeutic strategies to treat this disease. Recent research has uncovered complicated dynamics within the tumor microenvironment (TME) of PDAC. An abundant stroma provides a framework for interactions between cancer-associated fibroblasts, suppressive myeloid cells and regulatory lymphocytes, which together create an inhospitable environment for adaptive immune responses. This accounts for the poor infiltration and exhausted phenotypes of effector T cells within pancreatic tumors. Innovative studies in genetically engineered mouse models have established that with appropriate pharmacological modulation of suppressive elements in the TME, T cells can be prompted to regress pancreatic tumors. In light of this knowledge, innovative combinatorial strategies involving immunotherapy and targeted therapies working in concert are rapidly emerging. This review will highlight recent advances in the field related to immune suppression in PDAC, emerging preclinical data and rationale for ongoing immunotherapy clinical trials. In particular, we draw attention to foundational findings involving T-cell activity in PDAC and encourage development of novel therapeutics to improve T-cell responses in this challenging disease.

Modulating tumor-associated macrophages to enhance the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors: A TAM-pting approach

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) plasticity and diversity are both essential hallmarks of the monocyte-macrophage lineage and the tumor-derived inflammation. TAM exemplify the perfect adaptable cell with dynamic phenotypic modifications that reflect changes in their functional polarization status. Under several tumor microenvironment (TME)-related cues, TAM shift their polarization, hence promoting or halting cancer progression. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) displayed unprecedented clinical responses in various refractory cancers; but only approximately a third of patients experienced durable responses. It is, therefore, crucial to enhance the response rate of immunotherapy. Several mechanisms of resistance to ICI have been elucidated including TAM role with its essential immunosuppressive functions that reduce both anti-tumor immunity and the subsequent ICI efficacy. In the past few years, thorough research has led to a better understanding of TAM biology and innovative approaches can now be adapted through targeting macrophages' recruitment axis as well as TAM activation and polarization status within the TME. Some of these therapeutic strategies are currently being evaluated in several clinical trials in association with ICI agents. This combination between TAM modulation and ICI allows targeting TAM intrinsic immunosuppressive functions and tumor-promoting factors as well as overcoming ICI resistance. Hence, such strategies, with a better understanding of the mechanisms driving TAM modulation, may have the potential to optimize ICI efficacy.