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Wang Z, Sheng C, Yao C, Chen H, Wang D, Chen S. The EF-Hand Protein CALML6 Suppresses Antiviral Innate Immunity by Impairing IRF3 Dimerization. Cell Rep 2020; 26:1273-1285.e5. [PMID: 30699354 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.01.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 12/09/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The transcription factor IRF3 is phosphorylated in response to viral infection, and it subsequently forms a homodimer and translocates into the nucleus to induce the transcription of genes important for antiviral immunity, such as type I interferons (IFNs). This multistep process is essential for host defense against viral infection, but its regulation remains elusive. Here, we report that the EF-hand protein calmodulin-like 6 (CALML6) directly bound to the phosphorylated serine-rich (SR) region of IRF3 and impaired its dimerization and nuclear translocation. Enforced CALML6 expression suppressed viral infection-induced production of IFN-β and expression of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs), whereas CALML6 deficiency had the opposite effect. In addition, impaired IFN-β and ISG expression in bone-marrow-derived macrophages and tissues of CALML6 transgenic mice promoted viral replication. These findings identify a phosphorylation-dependent negative feedback loop that maintains the homeostasis of antiviral innate immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyang Wang
- Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center of Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou 510060, Guangdong, China
| | - Chunjie Sheng
- Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center of Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou 510060, Guangdong, China
| | - Chen Yao
- Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center of Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou 510060, Guangdong, China
| | - Hongyuan Chen
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, School of Basic Course, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, Guangdong, China
| | - Dan Wang
- Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center of Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou 510060, Guangdong, China
| | - Shuai Chen
- Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center of Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou 510060, Guangdong, China.
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Salem ML, Zidan AAA, Attia M, El-Naggar RE, Nassef M, Abou El-Azm AR, El-Bate H, Yussif M, Galal S, Abo Senna M, El Demellawy M. IFN-α-based treatment of patients with chronic HCV show increased levels of cells with myeloid-derived suppressor cell phenotype and of IDO and NOS. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2017; 39:188-198. [PMID: 28472907 DOI: 10.1080/08923973.2017.1320670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection causes chronic hepatitis, which is often associated with suppressed anti-HCV immune responses. We have recently reported accumulation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and suppressed immunity in cancer patients. AIM The main aim of this study was to determine whether chronic HCV patients harbor high of MDSCs in general and in nonresponders to IFN-based therapy in particular as well as to analyze the immune suppressive molecules. METHODS Peripheral blood samples withdrawn from 154 patients with chronic HCV infection and were categorized into responders and nonresponders based on viral titer upon IFN-α treatment. RESULTS The relative and absolute numbers of MDSCs defined as Lin-/HLA-DR-/CD33+/CD11b+ increased in all HCV patients, where they were higher in nonresponders than in responders. Additionally, the levels of MDSCs after 4-6 months of treatment in responders were lower than during the course of treatment. The responders also showed higher levels of IL-2 coincided with increased numbers of dendritic cells (DCs), CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. The levels of total NOS and IDO were also higher in nonresponders as compared to responders and healthy controls, while the expression levels of CD3ζ was lower in responders as compared to nonresponders and healthy volunteers. CONCLUSION Chronic HCV patients harbor high numbers of MDSCs, which are higher in nonresponders than in responders. The higher numbers of MDSCs associated with increases in the suppressing factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Labib Salem
- a Zoology Department, Immunology and Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science , Tanta University , Tanta , Egypt
| | - Abdel-Aziz A Zidan
- b Zoology Department, Faculty of Science , Damanhour University , Damanhour , Egypt
| | - Mohamed Attia
- c Department of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Medicine , Tanta University , Tanta , Egypt
| | - Randa E El-Naggar
- a Zoology Department, Immunology and Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science , Tanta University , Tanta , Egypt
| | - Mohamed Nassef
- a Zoology Department, Immunology and Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science , Tanta University , Tanta , Egypt
| | - Abdel Raouf Abou El-Azm
- d Department of Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Medicine , Tanta University , Tanta , Egypt
| | - Hasan El-Bate
- e Department of Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Medicine , Kafrelshheikh University , Kafr Elshheikh , Egypt
| | - Mohamed Yussif
- d Department of Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Medicine , Tanta University , Tanta , Egypt
| | - Sohaila Galal
- a Zoology Department, Immunology and Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science , Tanta University , Tanta , Egypt
| | - Mohamed Abo Senna
- a Zoology Department, Immunology and Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Science , Tanta University , Tanta , Egypt
| | - Maha El Demellawy
- f City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications , Pharmaceutical and Fermentation Industries Development Center , New Burg El Arab , Egypt
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Salem ML, El-Badawy A. Programmed death-1/programmed death-L1 signaling pathway and its blockade in hepatitis C virus immunotherapy. World J Hepatol 2015; 7:2449-2458. [PMID: 26483866 PMCID: PMC4606200 DOI: 10.4254/wjh.v7.i23.2449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2015] [Revised: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a public health issue that often progresses to life-threatening complications, including liver cirrhosis, fibrosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Impaired immune responses to HCV are key features of chronic HCV infection. Therefore, intervention strategies usually involve enhancing the immune responses against HCV. Cytotoxic CD8+ T lymphocytes (CTLs) play a critical role in the control of HCV infection. However, their cytolytic function can be impaired by the expression of co-inhibitory molecules. Programmed death-1 (PD-1) receptor and its ligand PD-L1 function in a T cell co-inhibitory pathway, which either blocks the function of CTLs or the differentiation of CD8+ T cells. During chronic HCV infection, the immune inhibitory receptor PD-1 is upregulated on dysfunctional HCV-specific CD8+ T cells. As such, blockade of the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway in these CD8+ T cells might restore their functional capabilities. Indeed, clinical trials using therapies to block this pathway have shown promise in the fostering of anti-HCV immunity. Understanding how chronic HCV infection induces upregulation of PD-1 on HCV specific T cells and how the PD-1/PD-L1 interaction develops HCV specific T cell dysfunction will accelerate the development of an efficacious prophylactic and therapeutic vaccination against chronic HCV infections, which will significantly improve HCV treatments and patient survival. In this review, we discuss the relationship between PD-1 expression and clinical responses and the potential use of PD-1 blockade for anti-HCV therapy.
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Yazdanian M, Memarnejadian A, Mahdavi M, Sadat SM, Motevali F, Vahabpour R, Khanahmad H, Siadat SD, Aghasadeghi MR, Roohvand F. Immunization of Mice by BCG Formulated HCV Core Protein Elicited Higher Th1-Oriented Responses Compared to Pluronic-F127 Copolymer. HEPATITIS MONTHLY 2013; 13:e14178. [PMID: 24348641 PMCID: PMC3842517 DOI: 10.5812/hepatmon.14178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2013] [Revised: 09/14/2013] [Accepted: 09/25/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A supreme vaccine for Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection should elicit strong Th1-oriented cellular responses. In the absence of a Th1-specific adjuvant, immunizations by protein antigens generally induce Th2-type and weak cellular responses. OBJECTIVES To evaluate the adjuvant effect of BCG in comparison with nonionic copolymer-Pluronic F127 (F127) as a classic adjuvant in the formulation of HCV core protein (HCVcp) as a candidate vaccine for induction of Th1 immune responses. MATERIALS AND METHODS Expression of N-terminally His-Tagged HCVcp (1-122) by pIVEX2.4a-core vector harboring the corresponding gene under the control of arabinose-inducible (araBAD) promoter was achieved in BL21-AI strain of E.coli and purified through application of nitrilotriacetic acid (Ni-NTA) chromatography. Mice were immunized subcutaneously (s.c.) in base of the tail with 100 μl of immunogen (F127+HCVcp or BCG+HCVcp; 5 μgHCVcp/mouse/dose) or control formulations (PBS, BCG, F127) at weeks 0, 3, 6. Total and subtypes of IgG, as well as cellular immune responses (Proliferation, In vivo CTL and IFN-γ/IL-4 ELISpot assays against a strong and dominant H2-d restricted, CD8+-epitopic peptide, core 39-48; RRGPRLGVRA of HCVcp) were compared in each group of immunized animals. RESULTS Expression and purification of core protein around the expected size (21 kDa) was confirmed by Western blotting. The HCVcp + BCG vaccinated mice showed significantly higher lymphocyte proliferation and IFN-γ production but lower levels of cell lysis (45% versus 62% in CTL assay) than the HCVcp+F127 immunized animals. "Besides, total anti-core IgG and IgG1 levels were significantly higher in HCVcp + F127 immunized mice as compared to HCVcp + BCG vaccinated animals, indicating relatively higher efficacy of F127 for the stimulation of humoral and Th2-oriented immune responses". CONCLUSIONS Results showed that HCVcp + BCG induced a moderate CTL and mixed Th1/Th2 immune responses with higher levels of cell proliferation and IFN-γ secretion, indicating that BCG may have a better outcome when formulated in HCVcp-based subunit vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Yazdanian
- Hepatitis and AIDS Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Arash Memarnejadian
- Hepatitis and AIDS Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, IR Iran
- Corresponding authors: Arash Memarnejadian, Hepatitis and AIDS Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, IR Iran. Tel/Fax: +98-2166969291, E-mail: ; Farzin Roohvand, Virology Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, IR Iran. Tel/Fax: +98-2166496682, E-mail: ,
| | - Mehdi Mahdavi
- Virology Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Seyed Mehdi Sadat
- Hepatitis and AIDS Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Fatemeh Motevali
- Hepatitis and AIDS Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, IR Iran
| | | | - Hossein Khanahmad
- BCG Research Center, Karaj Research and Production Complex, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Karaj, IR Iran
| | | | | | - Farzin Roohvand
- Virology Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, IR Iran
- Corresponding authors: Arash Memarnejadian, Hepatitis and AIDS Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, IR Iran. Tel/Fax: +98-2166969291, E-mail: ; Farzin Roohvand, Virology Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, IR Iran. Tel/Fax: +98-2166496682, E-mail: ,
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Kong L, Liu K, Zhang YZ, Jin M, Wu BR, Wang WZ, Li W, Nan YM, Chen YH. Downregulation of TIPE2 mRNA expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with chronic hepatitis C. Hepatol Int 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s12072-013-9435-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Wang X, Dong L, Ni H, Zhou S, Xu Z, Hoellwarth JS, Chen X, Zhang R, Chen Q, Liu F, Wang J, Su C. Combined TLR7/8 and TLR9 ligands potentiate the activity of a Schistosoma japonicum DNA vaccine. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7:e2164. [PMID: 23593527 PMCID: PMC3617091 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2012] [Accepted: 03/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands have been explored as vaccine adjuvants for tumor and virus immunotherapy, but few TLR ligands affecting schistosoma vaccines have been characterized. Previously, we developed a partially protective DNA vaccine encoding the 26-kDa glutathione S-transferase of Schistosoma japonicum (pVAX1-Sj26GST). Methodology/Principal Findings In this study, we evaluated a TLR7/8 ligand (R848) and a TLR9 ligand (CpG oligodeoxynucleotides, or CpG) as adjuvants for pVAX1-Sj26GST and assessed their effects on the immune system and protection against S. japonicum. We show that combining CpG and R848 with pVAX1-Sj26GST immunization significantly increases splenocyte proliferation and IgG and IgG2a levels, decreases CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Treg) frequency in vivo, and enhances protection against S. japonicum. CpG and R848 inhibited Treg-mediated immunosuppression, upregulated the production of interferon (IFN)-γ, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10, IL-2, and IL-6, and decreased Foxp3 expression in vitro, which may contribute to prevent Treg suppression and conversion during vaccination and allow expansion of antigen-specific T cells against pathogens. Conclusions Our data shows that selective TLR ligands can increase the protective efficacy of DNA vaccines against schistosomiasis, potentially through combined antagonism of Treg-mediated immunosuppression and conversion. There is evidence that TLR activation can block Treg cell responses and thereby break tolerance to self-antigens. It is expected that the use of TLR ligands as vaccine adjuvants will induce potent anti-pathogen immune responses and simultaneously overcome immune inhibition mediated by Tregs. However, the impact of TLR ligands on schistosomiasis vaccines is unclear. Here, we demonstrate that the use of a TLR7/8 ligand (R848) and a TLR9 ligand (CpG) as adjuvants in combination with the S. japonicum vaccine pVAX1-Sj26GST improves disease protection. The combination of CpG and R848 administered after vaccination causes an immune response marked by an upregulation of splenocyte proliferation and IgG and IgG2a levels that also coincides with a decreased proportion of CD4+CD25+ Tregs in mice. We also show that combined adjuvant use of CpG and R848 may impair Treg development and function by promoting the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and reducing Foxp3 expression. Our findings suggest that in combination with the vaccine, TLR ligands may protect the effector response from Treg-mediated suppression, thereby eliciting the appropriate immune response to improve vaccine efficacy. Immunization combined with the TLR ligands CpG and R848 thus represents a promising new approach for the design of schistosoma vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuefeng Wang
- Department of Central Laboratory, The Affiliated People's Hospital, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China.
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Velazquez VM, Hon H, Ibegbu C, Knechtle SJ, Kirk AD, Grakoui A. Hepatic enrichment and activation of myeloid dendritic cells during chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Hepatology 2012; 56:2071-81. [PMID: 22711645 PMCID: PMC3747821 DOI: 10.1002/hep.25904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2012] [Accepted: 06/04/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a serious disease that can result in numerous long-term complications leading to liver failure or death. Approximately 80% of people fail to clear their infection, largely as the result of weak, narrowly targeting or waning antiviral T-cell responses. Although professional antigen presenting cells (APCs) like dendritic cells (DCs) might serve as targets for modulation of T-cell immunity, the particular role of DCs in immunity to HCV is not known. Moreover the identity, phenotype, and functional characteristics of such populations in the liver, the site of HCV replication, have proven difficult to elucidate. Using a multicolor flow-based approach, we identified six distinct populations of professional APCs among liver interstitial leukocytes isolated from uninfected and HCV-infected patients. Although a generalized enrichment of DCs in the liver compared to blood was observed for all patients, HCV infection was characterized by a significant increase in the frequency of intrahepatic myeloid DCs (both CD1c+ and CD141+). Phenotypic analyses of liver plasmacytoid (pDC) and myeloid DCs (mDC) further revealed the HCV-induced expression of maturation molecules CD80, CD83, CD40, and programmed death ligand-1. Importantly, pDC and mDCs from HCV-infected liver were capable of secreting effector cytokines, interferon-alpha and interleukin-12, respectively, in response to Toll-like receptor stimulation in vitro. CONCLUSION Chronic HCV infection facilitates the "customized" recruitment of liver DC subsets with established functional roles in antigen presentation. These DCs are characterized by a mature, activated phenotype and are functionally responsive to antigenic stimulation in vitro. Such findings highlight an important paradox surrounding liver DC recruitment during HCV infection, where despite their activation these cells do not provide adequate protection from the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Huiming Hon
- Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Chris Ibegbu
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Stuart J. Knechtle
- Department of Surgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Allan D. Kirk
- Department of Surgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Arash Grakoui
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
- Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
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Miyake T, Hiasa Y, Hirooka M, Tokumoto Y, Watanabe T, Furukawa S, Ueda T, Yamamoto S, Kumagi T, Miyaoka H, Abe M, Matsuura B, Onji M. High serum palmitic acid is associated with low antiviral effects of interferon-based therapy for hepatitis C virus. Lipids 2012; 47:1053-62. [PMID: 22983804 DOI: 10.1007/s11745-012-3716-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2012] [Accepted: 08/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection alters fatty acid synthesis and metabolism in association with HCV replication. The present study examined the effect of serum fatty acid composition on interferon (IFN)-based therapy. Fifty-five patients with HCV were enrolled and received IFN-based therapy. Patient characteristics, laboratory data (including fatty acids), and viral factors that could be associated with the anti-HCV effects of IFN-based therapy were evaluated. The effects of individual fatty acids on viral replication and IFN-based therapy were also examined in an in-vitro system. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that the level of serum palmitic acid before treatment and HCV genotype were significant predictors for rapid virological response (RVR), early virological response (EVR), and sustained virological response (SVR). High levels of palmitic acid inhibited the anti-HCV effects of IFN-based therapy. HCV replication assays confirmed the inhibitory effects of palmitic acid on anti-HCV therapy. The concentration of serum palmitic acid is an independent predictive factor for RVR, EVR, and SVR in IFN-based antiviral therapy. These results suggest that the effect of IFN-based antiviral therapy in patients with HCV infection might be enhanced by treatment that modulates palmitic acid levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teruki Miyake
- Department of Gastroenterology and Metabology, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Toon, Ehime 791-0295, Japan
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Gaajetaan GR, Bruggeman CA, Stassen FR. The type I interferon response during viral infections: a "SWOT" analysis. Rev Med Virol 2011; 22:122-37. [PMID: 21971992 PMCID: PMC7169250 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2011] [Revised: 08/26/2011] [Accepted: 08/31/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The type I interferon (IFN) response is a strong and crucial moderator for the control of viral infections. The strength of this system is illustrated by the fact that, despite some temporary discomfort like a common cold or diarrhea, most viral infections will not cause major harm to the healthy immunocompetent host. To achieve this, the immune system is equipped with a wide array of pattern recognition receptors and the subsequent coordinated type I IFN response orchestrated by plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) and conventional dendritic cells (cDCs). The production of type I IFN subtypes by dendritic cells (DCs), but also other cells is crucial for the execution of many antiviral processes. Despite this coordinated response, morbidity and mortality are still common in viral disease due to the ability of viruses to exploit the weaknesses of the immune system. Viruses successfully evade immunity and infection can result in aberrant immune responses. However, these weaknesses also open opportunities for improvement via clinical interventions as can be seen in current vaccination and antiviral treatment programs. The application of IFNs, Toll-like receptor ligands, DCs, and antiviral proteins is now being investigated to further limit viral infections. Unfortunately, a common threat during stimulation of immunity is the possible initiation or aggravation of autoimmunity. Also the translation from animal models to the human situation remains difficult. With a Strengths-Weaknesses-Opportunities-Threats ("SWOT") analysis, we discuss the interaction between host and virus as well as (future) therapeutic options, related to the type I IFN system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giel R Gaajetaan
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, The Netherlands
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Schmidt J, Thimme R, Neumann-Haefelin C. Host genetics in immune-mediated hepatitis C virus clearance. Biomark Med 2011; 5:155-69. [PMID: 21473719 DOI: 10.2217/bmm.11.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Upon infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV), only few patients spontaneously clear the virus, while most patients develop chronic HCV infection. The host innate and adaptive immune response is believed to be the key determinant of viral clearance or persistence. Several host factors have been demonstrated to influence the efficiency of the antiviral immune response, including IL-28B polymorphisms, inhibitory natural killer cell receptors, as well as HLA class I and II alleles presenting viral antigens to CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells. The understanding of the respective mechanisms is essential for the development of successful vaccination strategies against HCV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Schmidt
- Department of Medicine II, University of Freiburg, Hugstetter Strasse 55, 79106 Freiburg, Germany
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