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Functional Heterodimerization between the G Protein-Coupled Receptor GPR17 and the Chemokine Receptors 2 and 4: New Evidence. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 24:ijms24010261. [PMID: 36613703 PMCID: PMC9820414 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24010261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
GPR17, a G protein-coupled receptor, is a pivotal regulator of myelination. Its endogenous ligands trigger receptor desensitization and downregulation allowing oligodendrocyte terminal maturation. In addition to its endogenous agonists, GPR17 could be promiscuously activated by pro-inflammatory oxysterols and chemokines released at demyelinating lesions. Herein, the chemokine receptors CXCR2 and CXCR4 were selected to perform both in silico modelling and in vitro experiments to establish their structural and functional interactions with GPR17. The relative propensity of GPR17 and CXCR2 or CXCR4 to form homo- and hetero-dimers was assessed by homology modelling and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, and co-immunoprecipitation and immunoenzymatic assay. The interaction between chemokine receptors and GPR17 was investigated by determining receptor-mediated modulation of intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Our data show the GPR17 association with CXCR2 or CXCR4 and the negative regulation of these interactions by CXCR agonists or antagonists. Moreover, GPR17 and CXCR2 heterodimers can functionally influence each other. In contrast, CXCR4 can influence GPR17 functionality, but not vice versa. According to MD simulations, all the dimers reached conformational stability and negative formation energy, confirming the experimental observations. The cross-talk between these receptors could play a role in the development of the neuroinflammatory milieu associated with demyelinating events.
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2
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Wang S, Wang Y, Zou S. A Glance at the Molecules That Regulate Oligodendrocyte Myelination. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2022; 44:2194-2216. [PMID: 35678678 PMCID: PMC9164040 DOI: 10.3390/cimb44050149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Oligodendrocyte (OL) myelination is a critical process for the neuronal axon function in the central nervous system. After demyelination occurs because of pathophysiology, remyelination makes repairs similar to myelination. Proliferation and differentiation are the two main stages in OL myelination, and most factors commonly play converse roles in these two stages, except for a few factors and signaling pathways, such as OLIG2 (Oligodendrocyte transcription factor 2). Moreover, some OL maturation gene mutations induce hypomyelination or hypermyelination without an obvious function in proliferation and differentiation. Herein, three types of factors regulating myelination are reviewed in sequence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunqi Wang
- Institute of Life Science & School of Life Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China; (S.W.); (Y.W.)
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China
| | - Yingxing Wang
- Institute of Life Science & School of Life Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China; (S.W.); (Y.W.)
| | - Suqi Zou
- Institute of Life Science & School of Life Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China; (S.W.); (Y.W.)
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China
- Correspondence:
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3
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Biringer RG. A review of non-prostanoid, eicosanoid receptors: expression, characterization, regulation, and mechanism of action. J Cell Commun Signal 2021; 16:5-46. [PMID: 34173964 DOI: 10.1007/s12079-021-00630-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Eicosanoid signaling controls a wide range of biological processes from blood pressure homeostasis to inflammation and resolution thereof to the perception of pain and to cell survival itself. Disruption of normal eicosanoid signaling is implicated in numerous disease states. Eicosanoid signaling is facilitated by G-protein-coupled, eicosanoid-specific receptors and the array of associated G-proteins. This review focuses on the expression, characterization, regulation, and mechanism of action of non-prostanoid, eicosanoid receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger G Biringer
- College of Osteopathic Medicine, Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine, 5000 Lakewood Ranch Blvd, Bradenton, FL, 34211, USA.
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4
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The Distribution of GPR17-Expressing Cells Correlates with White Matter Inflammation Status in Brain Tissues of Multiple Sclerosis Patients. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22094574. [PMID: 33925469 PMCID: PMC8123849 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
In multiple sclerosis (MS), oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) are recruited to the site of injury to remyelinate damaged axons; however, in patients this process is often ineffective due to defects in OPC maturation. The membrane receptor GPR17 timely regulates the early stages of OPC differentiation; however, after reaching its highest levels in immature oligodendrocytes, it has to be downregulated to allow terminal maturation. Since, in several animal models of disease GPR17 is upregulated, the aim of this work was to characterize GPR17 alterations in MS patients. We developed immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence procedures for the detection of GPR17 in human tissues and stained post-mortem MS brain lesions from patients with secondary progressive MS and control subjects. The inflammatory activity in each lesion was evaluated by immunohistochemistry for the myelin protein MOG and the HLA antigen to classify them as active, chronic inactive or chronic active. Hence, we assessed the distribution of GPR17-positive cells in these lesions compared to normal appearing white matter (NAWM) and white matter (WM) of control subjects. Our data have shown a marked increase of GPR17-expressing oligodendroglial cells accumulating at NAWM, in which moderate inflammation was also found. Furthermore, we identified two distinct subpopulations of GPR17-expressing oligodendroglial cells, characterized by either ramified or rounded morphology, that differently populate the WM of healthy controls and MS patients. We concluded that the coordinated presence of GPR17 in OPCs at the lesion sites and inflamed NAWM areas suggests that GPR17 could be exploited to support endogenous remyelination through advanced pharmacological approaches.
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5
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Rivera AD, Pieropan F, Chacon‐De‐La‐Rocha I, Lecca D, Abbracchio MP, Azim K, Butt AM. Functional genomic analyses highlight a shift in Gpr17-regulated cellular processes in oligodendrocyte progenitor cells and underlying myelin dysregulation in the aged mouse cerebrum. Aging Cell 2021; 20:e13335. [PMID: 33675110 PMCID: PMC8045941 DOI: 10.1111/acel.13335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain ageing is characterised by a decline in neuronal function and associated cognitive deficits. There is increasing evidence that myelin disruption is an important factor that contributes to the age-related loss of brain plasticity and repair responses. In the brain, myelin is produced by oligodendrocytes, which are generated throughout life by oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs). Currently, a leading hypothesis points to ageing as a major reason for the ultimate breakdown of remyelination in Multiple Sclerosis (MS). However, an incomplete understanding of the cellular and molecular processes underlying brain ageing hinders the development of regenerative strategies. Here, our combined systems biology and neurobiological approach demonstrate that oligodendroglial and myelin genes are amongst the most altered in the ageing mouse cerebrum. This was underscored by the identification of causal links between signalling pathways and their downstream transcriptional networks that define oligodendroglial disruption in ageing. The results highlighted that the G-protein coupled receptor Gpr17 is central to the disruption of OPCs in ageing and this was confirmed by genetic fate-mapping and cellular analyses. Finally, we used systems biology strategies to identify therapeutic agents that rejuvenate OPCs and restore myelination in age-related neuropathological contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea D. Rivera
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical ScienceUniversity of PortsmouthPortsmouthUK
- Department of NeuroscienceInstitute of Human AnatomyUniversity of PaduaPaduaItaly
| | - Francesca Pieropan
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical ScienceUniversity of PortsmouthPortsmouthUK
| | | | - Davide Lecca
- Department of Pharmaceutical SciencesUniversity of MilanMilanItaly
| | | | - Kasum Azim
- Department of NeurologyNeuroregenerationMedical FacultyHeinrich‐Heine‐UniversityDüsseldorfGermany
| | - Arthur M. Butt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical ScienceUniversity of PortsmouthPortsmouthUK
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6
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Raffaele S, Boccazzi M, Fumagalli M. Oligodendrocyte Dysfunction in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Perspectives. Cells 2021; 10:cells10030565. [PMID: 33807572 PMCID: PMC8000560 DOI: 10.3390/cells10030565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Myelin is the lipid-rich structure formed by oligodendrocytes (OLs) that wraps the axons in multilayered sheaths, assuring protection, efficient saltatory signal conduction and metabolic support to neurons. In the last few years, the impact of OL dysfunction and myelin damage has progressively received more attention and is now considered to be a major contributing factor to neurodegeneration in several neurological diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Upon OL injury, oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) of adult nervous tissue sustain the generation of new OLs for myelin reconstitution, but this spontaneous regeneration process fails to successfully counteract myelin damage. Of note, the functions of OPCs exceed the formation and repair of myelin, and also involve the trophic support to axons and the capability to exert an immunomodulatory role, which are particularly relevant in the context of neurodegeneration. In this review, we deeply analyze the impact of dysfunctional OLs in ALS pathogenesis. The possible mechanisms underlying OL degeneration, defective OPC maturation, and impairment in energy supply to motor neurons (MNs) have also been examined to provide insights on future therapeutic interventions. On this basis, we discuss the potential therapeutic utility in ALS of several molecules, based on their remyelinating potential or capability to enhance energy metabolism.
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7
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Jiang Y, Yan M, Wang C, Wang Q, Chen X, Zhang R, Wan L, Ji B, Dong B, Wang H, Chen J. The Effects of Apelin and Elabela Ligands on Apelin Receptor Distinct Signaling Profiles. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:630548. [PMID: 33746758 PMCID: PMC7970304 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.630548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Apelin and Elabela are endogenous peptide ligands for Apelin receptor (APJ), a widely expressed G protein-coupled receptor. They constitute a spatiotemporal dual ligand system to control APJ signal transduction and function. We investigated the effects of Apelin-13, pGlu1-apelin-13, Apelin-17, Apelin-36, Elabela-21 and Elabela-32 peptides on APJ signal transduction. Whether different ligands are biased to different APJ mediated signal transduction pathways was studied. We observed the different changes of G protein dependent and β-arrestin dependent signaling pathways after APJ was activated by six peptide ligands. We demonstrated that stimulation with APJ ligands resulted in dose-dependent increases in both G protein dependent [cyclic AMP (cAMP), Ca2+ mobilization, and the early phase extracellular related kinase (ERK) activation] and β-arrestin dependent [GRKs, β-arrestin 1, β-arrestin 2, and β2 subunit of the clathrin adaptor AP2] signaling pathways. However, the ligands exhibited distinct signaling profiles. Elabela-32 showed a >1000-fold bias to the β-statin-dependent signaling pathway. These data provide that Apelin-17 was biased toward β-arrestin dependent signaling. Eabela-21 and pGlu1-Apelin-13 exhibited very distinct activities on the G protein dependent pathway. The activity profiles of these ligands could be valuable for the development of drugs with high selectivity for specific APJ downstream signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunlu Jiang
- Neurobiology Key Laboratory of Jining Medical University in Colleges of Shandong, Jining Medical University, Jining, China
| | - Maocai Yan
- School of Pharmacy, Jining Medical University, Shandong, China
| | - Chunmei Wang
- Neurobiology Key Laboratory of Jining Medical University in Colleges of Shandong, Jining Medical University, Jining, China
| | - Qinqin Wang
- Neurobiology Key Laboratory of Jining Medical University in Colleges of Shandong, Jining Medical University, Jining, China
| | - Xiaoyu Chen
- Department of Physiology, Shandong First Medical University, Shandong, China
| | - Rumin Zhang
- Neurobiology Key Laboratory of Jining Medical University in Colleges of Shandong, Jining Medical University, Jining, China
| | - Lei Wan
- Neurobiology Key Laboratory of Jining Medical University in Colleges of Shandong, Jining Medical University, Jining, China
| | - Bingyuan Ji
- Neurobiology Key Laboratory of Jining Medical University in Colleges of Shandong, Jining Medical University, Jining, China
| | - Bo Dong
- Department of Cardiology, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, China
| | - Huiyun Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Jining Medical University, Shandong, China
| | - Jing Chen
- Neurobiology Key Laboratory of Jining Medical University in Colleges of Shandong, Jining Medical University, Jining, China.,Division of Biomedical Sciences, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
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8
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Sokolowska M, Rovati GE, Diamant Z, Untersmayr E, Schwarze J, Lukasik Z, Sava F, Angelina A, Palomares O, Akdis CA, O’Mahony L, Sanak M, Dahlen S, Woszczek G. Current perspective on eicosanoids in asthma and allergic diseases: EAACI Task Force consensus report, part I. Allergy 2021; 76:114-130. [PMID: 32279330 DOI: 10.1111/all.14295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Revised: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Eicosanoids are biologically active lipid mediators, comprising prostaglandins, leukotrienes, thromboxanes, and lipoxins, involved in several pathophysiological processes relevant to asthma, allergies, and allied diseases. Prostaglandins and leukotrienes are the most studied eicosanoids and established inducers of airway pathophysiology including bronchoconstriction and airway inflammation. Drugs inhibiting the synthesis of lipid mediators or their effects, such as leukotriene synthesis inhibitors, leukotriene receptors antagonists, and more recently prostaglandin D2 receptor antagonists, have been shown to modulate features of asthma and allergic diseases. This review, produced by an European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) task force, highlights our current understanding of eicosanoid biology and its role in mediating human pathology, with a focus on new findings relevant for clinical practice, development of novel therapeutics, and future research opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milena Sokolowska
- Swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research University of Zurich Davos Switzerland
- Christine Kühne ‐ Center for Allergy Research and Education (CK‐CARE) Davos Switzerland
| | - G. Enrico Rovati
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences University of Milan Milan Italy
| | - Zuzana Diamant
- Department of Respiratory Medicine & Allergology Skane University Hospital Lund Sweden
- Department of Respiratory Medicine First Faculty of Medicine Charles University and Thomayer Hospital Prague Czech Republic
| | - Eva Untersmayr
- Institute of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology Medical University of Vienna Vienna Austria
| | - Jargen Schwarze
- Child Life and Health and Centre for Inflammation Research The University of Edinburgh Edinburgh UK
| | - Zuzanna Lukasik
- Swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research University of Zurich Davos Switzerland
| | - Florentina Sava
- London North Genomic Laboratory Hub Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation Trust London UK
| | - Alba Angelina
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology School of Chemistry Complutense University Madrid Spain
| | - Oscar Palomares
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology School of Chemistry Complutense University Madrid Spain
| | - Cezmi A. Akdis
- Swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research University of Zurich Davos Switzerland
- Christine Kühne ‐ Center for Allergy Research and Education (CK‐CARE) Davos Switzerland
| | - Liam O’Mahony
- Departments of Medicine and Microbiology APC Microbiome Ireland University College Cork Cork Ireland
| | - Marek Sanak
- Department of Medicine Jagiellonian University Medical College Krakow Poland
| | - Sven‐Erik Dahlen
- Institute of Environmental Medicine Karolinska Institute Stockholm Sweden
- Centre for Allergy Research Karolinska Institute Stockholm Sweden
| | - Grzegorz Woszczek
- MRC/Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences King's College London London UK
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9
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Mutharasu G, Murugesan A, Konda Mani S, Yli-Harja O, Kandhavelu M. Transcriptomic analysis of glioblastoma multiforme providing new insights into GPR17 signaling communication. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2020; 40:2586-2599. [PMID: 33140689 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2020.1841029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) is one of the most aggressive malignant tumors in the central nervous system, which arises due to the failure or crosstalk in the signaling networks. GPR17, an orphan G protein-coupled receptor is anticipated to be associated with the biology of the GBM disease progression. In the present study, we have identified the differential expressions of around 170 genes along with GPR17 through the RNA-Seq analysis of 169 GBM samples. Coordinated expression patterns of all other gene products with this receptor were analysed using gene ontology and protein-protein interaction data. Several crucial signaling components and genes that play a significant role in tumor progression have been identified among which GPR17 was found to be significantly interacting with about 30 different pathways. High-throughput molecular docking of GPR17 by homology-based model against differentially expressed proteins, showed effective recognition and binding of PX, SH3, and Ig-like domains besides Gi protein. Pathways of PI3, Src, Ptdn, Ras, cytoplasmic tyrosine kinases, phospholipases, nexins and other proteins possessing these structural domains are identified as critical signaling components of the complex GBM signaling network. Our findings also provide a mechanistic insight of GPR17-T0510-3657 interaction, which potentially regulates the interaction of PX domain and helical mPTS recognition domain-containing proteins. Overall, our results demonstrate that GPR17 mediated signaling networks could be used as a therapeutic target for GBM.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gnanavel Mutharasu
- BioMediTech Institute and Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
| | - Akshaya Murugesan
- BioMediTech Institute and Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland.,Molecular Signalling Lab, Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland.,Department of Biotechnology, Lady Doak College, Thallakulam, Madurai, India
| | - Saravanan Konda Mani
- Center for High Performance Computing, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China
| | - Olli Yli-Harja
- BioMediTech Institute and Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland.,Computaional Systems Biology Group, Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland.,Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Meenakshisundaram Kandhavelu
- BioMediTech Institute and Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland.,Molecular Signalling Lab, Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland.,Science Center, Tampere University Hospital, Tampere, Finland
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10
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Yang J, Gong Z, Lu YB, Xu CJ, Wei TF, Yang MS, Zhan TW, Yang YH, Lin L, Liu J, Tang C, Zhang WP. FLIM-FRET-Based Structural Characterization of a Class-A GPCR Dimer in the Cell Membrane. J Mol Biol 2020; 432:4596-4611. [PMID: 32553728 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2020.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Revised: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Class-A G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are known to homo-dimerize in the membrane. Yet, methods to characterize the structure of GPCR dimer in the native environment are lacking. Accordingly, the molecular basis and functional relevance of the class-A GPCR dimerization remain unclear. Here, we present the dimeric structural model of GPR17 in the cell membrane. The dimer mainly involves transmembrane helix 5 (TM5) at the interface, with F229 in TM5, a critical residue. An F229A mutation makes GPR17 monomeric regardless of the expression level of the receptor. Monomeric mutants of GPR17 display impaired ERK1/2 activation and cannot be properly internalized upon agonist treatment. Conversely, the F229C mutant is cross-linked as a dimer and behaves like wild-type. Importantly, the GPR17 dimer structure has been modeled using sparse inter-protomer FRET distance restraints obtained from fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy. The same approach can be applied to characterizing the interactions of other important membrane proteins in the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ju Yang
- Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Center for Magnetic Resonance at Wuhan, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy of Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhou Gong
- Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Center for Magnetic Resonance at Wuhan, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy of Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, China
| | - Yun-Bi Lu
- Department of Pharmacology and Department Of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Chan-Juan Xu
- College of Life Science and Technology, International Research Center for Sensory Biology and Technology of MOST, Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics of Ministry of Education, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
| | - Tao-Feng Wei
- Department of Pharmacology and Department Of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Meng-Shi Yang
- Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Center for Magnetic Resonance at Wuhan, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy of Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, China
| | - Tian-Wei Zhan
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang 310009, China
| | - Yu-Hong Yang
- Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Center for Magnetic Resonance at Wuhan, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy of Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, China
| | - Li Lin
- College of Life Science and Technology, International Research Center for Sensory Biology and Technology of MOST, Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics of Ministry of Education, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
| | - Jianfeng Liu
- College of Life Science and Technology, International Research Center for Sensory Biology and Technology of MOST, Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics of Ministry of Education, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China.
| | - Chun Tang
- Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Center for Magnetic Resonance at Wuhan, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy of Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, China; Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei Province 430074, China.
| | - Wei-Ping Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology and Department Of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China.
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11
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Lecca D, Raffaele S, Abbracchio MP, Fumagalli M. Regulation and signaling of the GPR17 receptor in oligodendroglial cells. Glia 2020; 68:1957-1967. [PMID: 32086854 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Remyelination, namely, the formation of new myelin sheaths around denuded axons, counteracts axonal degeneration and restores neuronal function. Considerable advances have been made in understanding this regenerative process that often fails in diseases like multiple sclerosis, leaving axons demyelinated and vulnerable to damage, thus contributing to disease progression. The identification of the membrane receptor GPR17 on a subset of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), which mediate remyelination in the adult central nervous system (CNS), has led to a huge amount of evidence that validated this receptor as a new attractive target for remyelinating therapies. Here, we summarize the role of GPR17 in OPC function, myelination and remyelination, describing its atypical pharmacology, its downstream signaling, and the genetic and epigenetic factors modulating its activity. We also highlight crucial insights into GPR17 pathophysiology coming from the demonstration that oligodendrocyte injury, associated with inflammation in chronic neurodegenerative conditions, is invariably characterized by abnormal and persistent GPR17 upregulation, which, in turn, is accompanied by a block of OPCs at immature premyelinating stages. Finally, we discuss the current literature in light of the potential exploitment of GPR17 as a therapeutic target to promote remyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Lecca
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefano Raffaele
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Maria P Abbracchio
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Marta Fumagalli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
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12
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Sustained GRK2-dependent CREB activation is essential for α 2-adrenergic receptor-induced PC12 neuronal differentiation. Cell Signal 2019; 66:109446. [PMID: 31678682 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2019.109446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Revised: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Many aspects of neuronal development, such as neuronal survival and differentiation, are regulated by the transcription factor cAMP-response element-binding protein (CREB). We have previously reported that α2-adrenergic receptors (ARs), members of the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily, induce neuronal differentiation of rat pheochromocytoma (PC)-12 cells in a subtype-specific manner, i.e. α2A<α2B<α2C. Herein, we sought to investigate CREB`s involvement in this α2AR-dependent neurogenic process. We used a combination of gene reporter assays and immunoblotting analysis, coupled with co-immunoprecipitation and morphological analysis, in transfected PC12 cell lines. Chronic α2B- or α2C-AR activation results in sustained CREB activation, which is both necessary and sufficient for neuronal differentiation of PC12 cells expressing these two α2ARs. In contrast, chronic α2A activation only leads to transient CREB activation, insufficient for PC12 neuronal differentiation. However, upon CREB overexpression, α2A-AR triggers neuronal differentiation similarly to α2B- or α2C-ARs. Importantly, NGF (Nerve Growth Factor)`s TrkA receptor transactivation is essential for the sustained activation of CREB by all three α2 subtypes in PC12 cells, whereas protein kinase A (PKA), the prototypic kinase that phosphorylates CREB, is not. Instead, TrkA-activated GPCR-kinase (GRK)-2 mediates the sustained CREB activation during α2AR-induced neuronal differentiation of PC12 cells. In conclusion, catecholaminergic-induced neuronal differentiation of PC12 cells through α2ARs uses a non-canonical pathway involving TrkA transactivation and subsequent GRK2-dependent, sustained phosphorylation/activation of CREB. These findings provide novel insights into catecholaminergic neurogenesis and suggest that α2AR agonists, combined with NGF analogs or GRK2 stimulators, may exert neurogenic/neuroprotective effects.
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Daniele S, Giacomelli C, Pietrobono D, Barresi E, Piccarducci R, La Pietra V, Taliani S, Da Settimo F, Marinelli L, Novellino E, Martini C, Trincavelli ML. Long lasting inhibition of Mdm2-p53 interaction potentiates mesenchymal stem cell differentiation into osteoblasts. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2019; 1866:737-749. [PMID: 30703414 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2019.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Revised: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The osteoblast generation from Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) is tightly coordinated by transcriptional networks and signalling pathways that control gene expression and protein stability of osteogenic "master transcription factors". Among these pathways, a great attention has been focused on p53 and its physiological negative regulator, the E3 ligase Murine double minute 2 (Mdm2). Nevertheless, the signalling that regulates Mdm2-p53 axis in osteoblasts remain to be elucidated, also considering that Mdm2 possesses numerous p53-independent activities and interacts with additional proteins. Herein, the effects of Mdm2 modulation on MSC differentiation were examined by the use of short- and long-lasting inhibitors of the Mdm2-p53 complex. The long-lasting Mdm2-p53 dissociation was demonstrated to enhance the MSC differentiation into osteoblasts. The increase of Mdm2 levels promoted its association to G protein-coupled receptors kinase (GRK) 2, one of the most relevant kinases involved in the desensitization of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). In turn, the long-lasting Mdm2-p53 dissociation decreased GRK2 levels and favoured the functionality of A2B Adenosine Receptors (A2BARs), a GPCR dictating MSC fate. EB148 facilitated cAMP accumulation, and mediated a sustained activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs) and cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB). Such pro-osteogenic effects were not detectable by using the reversible Mdm2-p53 complex inhibitor, suggesting the time course of Mdm2-p53 dissociation may impact on intracellular proteins involved in cell differentiation fate. These results suggest that the long-lasting Mdm2 binding plays a key role in the mobilization of intracellular proteins that regulate the final biological outcome of MSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Daniele
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | - Valeria La Pietra
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Sabrina Taliani
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | | | - Luciana Marinelli
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Ettore Novellino
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Claudia Martini
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy.
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Fumagalli M, Lecca D, Coppolino GT, Parravicini C, Abbracchio MP. Pharmacological Properties and Biological Functions of the GPR17 Receptor, a Potential Target for Neuro-Regenerative Medicine. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1051:169-192. [PMID: 28828731 DOI: 10.1007/5584_2017_92] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In 2006, cells heterologously expressing the "orphan" receptor GPR17 were shown to acquire responses to both uracil nucleotides and cysteinyl-leukotrienes, two families of signaling molecules accumulating in brain or heart as a result of hypoxic/traumatic injuries. In subsequent years, evidence of GPR17 key role in oligodendrogenesis and myelination has highlighted it as a "model receptor" for new therapies in demyelinating and neurodegenerative diseases. The apparently contrasting evidence in the literature about the role of GPR17 in promoting or inhibiting myelination can be due to its transient expression in the intermediate stages of differentiation, exerting a pro-differentiating function in early oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), and an inhibitory role in late stage maturing cells. Meanwhile, several papers extended the initial data on GPR17 pharmacology, highlighting a "promiscuous" behavior of this receptor; indeed, GPR17 is able to respond to other emergency signals like oxysterols or the pro-inflammatory cytokine SDF-1, underlying GPR17 ability to adapt its responses to changes of the surrounding extracellular milieu, including damage conditions. Here, we analyze the available literature on GPR17, in an attempt to summarize its emerging biological roles and pharmacological properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Fumagalli
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology of Purinergic Transmission, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Davide Lecca
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology of Purinergic Transmission, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Giusy T Coppolino
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology of Purinergic Transmission, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Chiara Parravicini
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology of Purinergic Transmission, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Maria P Abbracchio
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology of Purinergic Transmission, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133, Milan, Italy.
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Nyamoya S, Leopold P, Becker B, Beyer C, Hustadt F, Schmitz C, Michel A, Kipp M. G-Protein-Coupled Receptor Gpr17 Expression in Two Multiple Sclerosis Remyelination Models. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 56:1109-1123. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1146-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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G-Protein-Coupled Receptor Gpr17 Regulates Oligodendrocyte Differentiation in Response to Lysolecithin-Induced Demyelination. Sci Rep 2018. [PMID: 29540737 PMCID: PMC5852120 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-22452-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Oligodendrocytes are the myelin-producing cells of the central nervous system (CNS). A variety of brain disorders from “classical” demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, stroke, schizophrenia, depression, Down syndrome and autism, are shown myelination defects. Oligodendrocyte myelination is regulated by a complex interplay of intrinsic, epigenetic and extrinsic factors. Gpr17 (G protein-coupled receptor 17) is a G protein-coupled receptor, and has been identified to be a regulator for oligodendrocyte development. Here, we demonstrate that the absence of Gpr17 enhances remyelination in vivo with a toxin-induced model whereby focal demyelinated lesions are generated in spinal cord white matter of adult mice by localized injection of LPC(L-a-lysophosphatidylcholine). The increased expression of the activated form of Erk1/2 (phospho-Erk1/2) in lesion areas suggested the potential role of Erk1/2 activity on the Gpr17-dependent modulation of myelination. The absence of Gpr17 enhances remyelination is correlate with the activated Erk1/2 (phospho-Erk1/2).Being a membrane receptor, Gpr17 represents an ideal druggable target to be exploited for innovative regenerative approaches to acute and chronic CNS diseases.
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Lecca D, Fumagalli M, Ceruti S, Abbracchio MP. Intertwining extracellular nucleotides and their receptors with Ca2+ in determining adult neural stem cell survival, proliferation and final fate. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2017; 371:rstb.2015.0433. [PMID: 27377726 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/31/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In the central nervous system (CNS), during both brain and spinal cord development, purinergic and pyrimidinergic signalling molecules (ATP, UTP and adenosine) act synergistically with peptidic growth factors in regulating the synchronized proliferation and final specification of multipotent neural stem cells (NSCs) to neurons, astrocytes or oligodendrocytes, the myelin-forming cells. Some NSCs still persist throughout adulthood in both specific 'neurogenic' areas and in brain and spinal cord parenchyma, retaining the potentiality to generate all the three main types of adult CNS cells. Once CNS anatomical structures are defined, purinergic molecules participate in calcium-dependent neuron-to-glia communication and also control the behaviour of adult NSCs. After development, some purinergic mechanisms are silenced, but can be resumed after injury, suggesting a role for purinergic signalling in regeneration and self-repair also via the reactivation of adult NSCs. In this respect, at least three different types of adult NSCs participate in the response of the adult brain and spinal cord to insults: stem-like cells residing in classical neurogenic niches, in particular, in the ventricular-subventricular zone (V-SVZ), parenchymal oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs, also known as NG2-glia) and parenchymal injury-activated astrocytes (reactive astrocytes). Here, we shall review and discuss the purinergic regulation of these three main adult NSCs, with particular focus on how and to what extent modulation of intracellular calcium levels by purinoceptors is mandatory to determine their survival, proliferation and final fate.This article is part of the themed issue 'Evolution brings Ca(2+) and ATP together to control life and death'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Lecca
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology of Purinergic Transmission, Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Marta Fumagalli
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology of Purinergic Transmission, Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Stefania Ceruti
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology of Purinergic Transmission, Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Maria P Abbracchio
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology of Purinergic Transmission, Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
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Olig2-Targeted G-Protein-Coupled Receptor Gpr17 Regulates Oligodendrocyte Survival in Response to Lysolecithin-Induced Demyelination. J Neurosci 2017; 36:10560-10573. [PMID: 27733608 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0898-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, are known to result from acute or chronic injury to the myelin sheath and inadequate remyelination; however, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we performed genome occupancy analysis by chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing in oligodendrocytes in response to lysolecithin-induced injury and found that Olig2 and its downstream target Gpr17 are critical factors in regulating oligodendrocyte survival. After injury to oligodendrocytes, Olig2 was significantly upregulated and transcriptionally targeted the Gpr17 locus. Gpr17 activation inhibited oligodendrocyte survival by reducing the intracellular cAMP level and inducing expression of the pro-apoptotic gene Xaf1 The protein kinase A signaling pathway and the transcription factor c-Fos mediated the regulatory effects of Gpr17 in oligodendrocytes. We showed that Gpr17 inhibition elevated Epac1 expression and promoted oligodendrocyte differentiation. The loss of Gpr17, either globally or specifically in oligodendrocytes, led to an earlier onset of remyelination after myelin injury in mice. Similarly, pharmacological inhibition of Gpr17 with pranlukast promoted remyelination. Our findings indicate that Gpr17, an Olig2 transcriptional target, is activated after injury to oligodendrocytes and that targeted inhibition of Gpr17 promotes oligodendrocyte remyelination. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Genome occupancy analysis of oligodendrocytes in response to lysolecithin-mediated demyelination injury revealed that Olig2 and its downstream target Gpr17 are part of regulatory circuitry critical for oligodendrocyte survival. Gpr17 inhibits oligodendrocyte survival through activation of Xaf1 and cell differentiation by reducing Epac1 expression. The loss of Gpr17 in mice led to precocious myelination and an earlier onset of remyelination after demyelination. Pharmacological inhibition of Gpr17 promoted remyelination, highlighting the potential for Gpr17-targeted therapeutic approaches in demyelination diseases.
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Eleuteri C, Olla S, Veroni C, Umeton R, Mechelli R, Romano S, Buscarinu MC, Ferrari F, Calò G, Ristori G, Salvetti M, Agresti C. A staged screening of registered drugs highlights remyelinating drug candidates for clinical trials. Sci Rep 2017; 7:45780. [PMID: 28387380 PMCID: PMC5384285 DOI: 10.1038/srep45780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Accepted: 03/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
There is no treatment for the myelin loss in multiple sclerosis, ultimately resulting in the axonal degeneration that leads to the progressive phase of the disease. We established a multi-tiered platform for the sequential screening of drugs that could be repurposed as remyelinating agents. We screened a library of 2,000 compounds (mainly Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved compounds and natural products) for cellular metabolic activity on mouse oligodendrocyte precursors (OPC), identifying 42 molecules with significant stimulating effects. We then characterized the effects of these compounds on OPC proliferation and differentiation in mouse glial cultures, and on myelination and remyelination in organotypic cultures. Three molecules, edaravone, 5-methyl-7-methoxyisoflavone and lovastatin, gave positive results in all screening tiers. We validated the results by retesting independent stocks of the compounds, analyzing their purity, and performing dose-response curves. To identify the chemical features that may be modified to enhance the compounds' activity, we tested chemical analogs and identified, for edaravone, the functional groups that may be essential for its activity. Among the selected remyelinating candidates, edaravone appears to be of strong interest, also considering that this drug has been approved as a neuroprotective agent for acute ischemic stroke and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in Japan.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Eleuteri
- Department of Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - S. Olla
- Istituto di Ricerca Genetica e Biomedica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Monserrato 09042, Italy
| | - C. Veroni
- Department of Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - R. Umeton
- Center for Experimental Neurological Therapies, Sant’Andrea Hospital, Department of Neurosciences, Mental Health and Sensory Organs (NESMOS), Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
| | - R. Mechelli
- Center for Experimental Neurological Therapies, Sant’Andrea Hospital, Department of Neurosciences, Mental Health and Sensory Organs (NESMOS), Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
| | - S. Romano
- Center for Experimental Neurological Therapies, Sant’Andrea Hospital, Department of Neurosciences, Mental Health and Sensory Organs (NESMOS), Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
| | - MC. Buscarinu
- Center for Experimental Neurological Therapies, Sant’Andrea Hospital, Department of Neurosciences, Mental Health and Sensory Organs (NESMOS), Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
| | - F. Ferrari
- Department of Medical Science, Section of Pharmacology and National Institute of Neuroscience, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - G. Calò
- Department of Medical Science, Section of Pharmacology and National Institute of Neuroscience, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - G. Ristori
- Center for Experimental Neurological Therapies, Sant’Andrea Hospital, Department of Neurosciences, Mental Health and Sensory Organs (NESMOS), Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
| | - M. Salvetti
- Center for Experimental Neurological Therapies, Sant’Andrea Hospital, Department of Neurosciences, Mental Health and Sensory Organs (NESMOS), Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
- IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Mediterraneo (INM) Neuromed, 86077 Pozzilli, IS, Italy
| | - C. Agresti
- Department of Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy
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Osteogenesis Is Improved by Low Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Concentration through the Modulation of Gs-Coupled Receptor Signals. Mol Cell Biol 2017; 37:MCB.00442-16. [PMID: 28137910 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00442-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
In the early phase of bone damage, low concentrations of the cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) favor osteoblast differentiation. In contrast, chronic high doses of the same cytokine contribute to bone loss, demonstrating opposite effects depending on its concentration and on the time of exposure. In the bone microenvironment, TNF-α modulates the expression/function of different G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and of their regulatory proteins, GPCR-regulated kinases (GRKs), thus dictating their final biological outcome in controlling bone anabolic processes. Here, the effects of TNF-α were investigated on the expression/responsiveness of the A2B adenosine receptor (A2BAR), a Gs-coupled receptor that promotes mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) differentiation into osteoblasts. Low TNF-α concentrations exerted a prodifferentiating effect on MSCs, pushing them toward an osteoblast phenotype. By regulating GRK2 turnover and expression, the cytokine impaired A2BAR desensitization, accelerating receptor-mediated osteoblast differentiation. These data supported the anabolic effect of TNF-α submaximal concentration and demonstrated that the cytokine regulates GPCR responses by interfering with the receptor desensitization machinery, thereby enhancing the anabolic responses evoked by A2BAR ligands. Overall, these results indicated that GPCR desensitization plays a pivotal role in osteogenesis and that its manipulation is an effective strategy to favor bone remodeling.
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Simon K, Merten N, Schröder R, Hennen S, Preis P, Schmitt NK, Peters L, Schrage R, Vermeiren C, Gillard M, Mohr K, Gomeza J, Kostenis E. The Orphan Receptor GPR17 Is Unresponsive to Uracil Nucleotides and Cysteinyl Leukotrienes. Mol Pharmacol 2017; 91:518-532. [PMID: 28254957 DOI: 10.1124/mol.116.107904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2016] [Accepted: 03/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Pairing orphan G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs) with their cognate endogenous ligands is expected to have a major impact on our understanding of GPCR biology. It follows that the reproducibility of orphan receptor ligand pairs should be of fundamental importance to guide meaningful investigations into the pharmacology and function of individual receptors. GPR17 is an orphan receptor characterized by some as a dualistic uracil nucleotide/cysteinyl leukotriene receptor and by others as inactive toward these stimuli altogether. Whereas regulation of central nervous system myelination by GPR17 is well established, verification of activity of its putative endogenous ligands has proven elusive so far. Herein we report that uracil nucleotides and cysteinyl leukotrienes do not activate human, mouse, or rat GPR17 in various cellular backgrounds, including primary cells, using eight distinct functional assay platforms based on labelfree pathway-unbiased biosensor technologies, as well as canonical second-messenger or biochemical assays. Appraisal of GPR17 activity can neither be accomplished with co-application of both ligand classes, nor with exogenous transfection of partner receptors (nucleotide P2Y12, cysteinyl-leukotriene CysLT1) to reconstitute the elusive pharmacology. Moreover, our study does not support the inhibition of GPR17 by the marketed antiplatelet drugs cangrelor and ticagrelor, previously suggested to antagonize GPR17. Whereas our data do not disagree with a role of GPR17 per se as an orchestrator of central nervous system functions, they challenge the utility of the proposed (ant)agonists as tools to imply direct contribution of GPR17 in complex biologic settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Simon
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology (K.S., N.M., Ral.S., S.H., P.P., N.-K.S, L.P., J.G., E.K.), Research Training Group 1873 (K.S., E.K.), Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, Institute of Pharmacy (Ram.S., K.M.), University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; UCB Pharma, CNS Research, Braine l'Alleud, Belgium (C.V., M.G.)
| | - Nicole Merten
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology (K.S., N.M., Ral.S., S.H., P.P., N.-K.S, L.P., J.G., E.K.), Research Training Group 1873 (K.S., E.K.), Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, Institute of Pharmacy (Ram.S., K.M.), University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; UCB Pharma, CNS Research, Braine l'Alleud, Belgium (C.V., M.G.)
| | - Ralf Schröder
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology (K.S., N.M., Ral.S., S.H., P.P., N.-K.S, L.P., J.G., E.K.), Research Training Group 1873 (K.S., E.K.), Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, Institute of Pharmacy (Ram.S., K.M.), University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; UCB Pharma, CNS Research, Braine l'Alleud, Belgium (C.V., M.G.)
| | - Stephanie Hennen
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology (K.S., N.M., Ral.S., S.H., P.P., N.-K.S, L.P., J.G., E.K.), Research Training Group 1873 (K.S., E.K.), Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, Institute of Pharmacy (Ram.S., K.M.), University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; UCB Pharma, CNS Research, Braine l'Alleud, Belgium (C.V., M.G.)
| | - Philip Preis
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology (K.S., N.M., Ral.S., S.H., P.P., N.-K.S, L.P., J.G., E.K.), Research Training Group 1873 (K.S., E.K.), Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, Institute of Pharmacy (Ram.S., K.M.), University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; UCB Pharma, CNS Research, Braine l'Alleud, Belgium (C.V., M.G.)
| | - Nina-Katharina Schmitt
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology (K.S., N.M., Ral.S., S.H., P.P., N.-K.S, L.P., J.G., E.K.), Research Training Group 1873 (K.S., E.K.), Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, Institute of Pharmacy (Ram.S., K.M.), University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; UCB Pharma, CNS Research, Braine l'Alleud, Belgium (C.V., M.G.)
| | - Lucas Peters
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology (K.S., N.M., Ral.S., S.H., P.P., N.-K.S, L.P., J.G., E.K.), Research Training Group 1873 (K.S., E.K.), Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, Institute of Pharmacy (Ram.S., K.M.), University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; UCB Pharma, CNS Research, Braine l'Alleud, Belgium (C.V., M.G.)
| | - Ramona Schrage
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology (K.S., N.M., Ral.S., S.H., P.P., N.-K.S, L.P., J.G., E.K.), Research Training Group 1873 (K.S., E.K.), Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, Institute of Pharmacy (Ram.S., K.M.), University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; UCB Pharma, CNS Research, Braine l'Alleud, Belgium (C.V., M.G.)
| | - Celine Vermeiren
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology (K.S., N.M., Ral.S., S.H., P.P., N.-K.S, L.P., J.G., E.K.), Research Training Group 1873 (K.S., E.K.), Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, Institute of Pharmacy (Ram.S., K.M.), University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; UCB Pharma, CNS Research, Braine l'Alleud, Belgium (C.V., M.G.)
| | - Michel Gillard
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology (K.S., N.M., Ral.S., S.H., P.P., N.-K.S, L.P., J.G., E.K.), Research Training Group 1873 (K.S., E.K.), Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, Institute of Pharmacy (Ram.S., K.M.), University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; UCB Pharma, CNS Research, Braine l'Alleud, Belgium (C.V., M.G.)
| | - Klaus Mohr
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology (K.S., N.M., Ral.S., S.H., P.P., N.-K.S, L.P., J.G., E.K.), Research Training Group 1873 (K.S., E.K.), Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, Institute of Pharmacy (Ram.S., K.M.), University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; UCB Pharma, CNS Research, Braine l'Alleud, Belgium (C.V., M.G.)
| | - Jesus Gomeza
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology (K.S., N.M., Ral.S., S.H., P.P., N.-K.S, L.P., J.G., E.K.), Research Training Group 1873 (K.S., E.K.), Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, Institute of Pharmacy (Ram.S., K.M.), University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; UCB Pharma, CNS Research, Braine l'Alleud, Belgium (C.V., M.G.)
| | - Evi Kostenis
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology (K.S., N.M., Ral.S., S.H., P.P., N.-K.S, L.P., J.G., E.K.), Research Training Group 1873 (K.S., E.K.), Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, Institute of Pharmacy (Ram.S., K.M.), University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; UCB Pharma, CNS Research, Braine l'Alleud, Belgium (C.V., M.G.).
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Blume LC, Patten T, Eldeeb K, Leone-Kabler S, Ilyasov AA, Keegan BM, O'Neal JE, Bass CE, Hantgan RR, Lowther WT, Selley DE, Howlett ALC. Cannabinoid Receptor Interacting Protein 1a Competition with β-Arrestin for CB1 Receptor Binding Sites. Mol Pharmacol 2016; 91:75-86. [PMID: 27895162 DOI: 10.1124/mol.116.104638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabinoid receptor interacting protein 1a (CRIP1a) is a CB1 receptor (CB1R) distal C-terminal-associated protein that alters CB1R interactions with G-proteins. We tested the hypothesis that CRIP1a is capable of also altering CB1R interactions with β-arrestin proteins that interact with the CB1R at the C-terminus. Coimmunoprecipitation studies indicated that CB1R associates in complexes with either CRIP1a or β-arrestin, but CRIP1a and β-arrestin fail to coimmunoprecipitate with each other. This suggests a competition for CRIP1a and β-arrestin binding to the CB1R, which we hypothesized could attenuate the action of β-arrestin to mediate CB1R internalization. We determined that agonist-mediated reduction of the density of cell surface endogenously expressed CB1Rs was clathrin and dynamin dependent and could be modeled as agonist-induced aggregation of transiently expressed GFP-CB1R. CRIP1a overexpression attenuated CP55940-mediated GFP-CB1R as well as endogenous β-arrestin redistribution to punctae, and conversely, CRIP1a knockdown augmented β-arrestin redistribution to punctae. Peptides mimicking the CB1R C-terminus could bind to both CRIP1a in cell extracts as well as purified recombinant CRIP1a. Affinity pull-down studies revealed that phosphorylation at threonine-468 of a CB1R distal C-terminus 14-mer peptide reduced CB1R-CRIP1a association. Coimmunoprecipitation of CB1R protein complexes demonstrated that central or distal C-terminal peptides competed for the CB1R association with CRIP1a, but that a phosphorylated central C-terminal peptide competed for association with β-arrestin 1, and phosphorylated central or distal C-terminal peptides competed for association with β-arrestin 2. Thus, CRIP1a can compete with β-arrestins for interaction with C-terminal CB1R domains that could affect agonist-driven, β-arrestin-mediated internalization of the CB1R.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence C Blume
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (L.C.B., T.P, K.E., S.L.-K., A.A.I., B.M.K., J.E.O., C.E.B., A.C.H.) and Department of Biochemistry and Center for Structural Biology (R.R.H., W.T.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Chemistry (T.P.) and Center for Molecular Signaling (W.T.L., A.C.H.), Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia (D.E.S.); and AL Azhar Faculty of Medicine, New Damietta, Egypt (K.E.)
| | - Theresa Patten
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (L.C.B., T.P, K.E., S.L.-K., A.A.I., B.M.K., J.E.O., C.E.B., A.C.H.) and Department of Biochemistry and Center for Structural Biology (R.R.H., W.T.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Chemistry (T.P.) and Center for Molecular Signaling (W.T.L., A.C.H.), Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia (D.E.S.); and AL Azhar Faculty of Medicine, New Damietta, Egypt (K.E.)
| | - Khalil Eldeeb
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (L.C.B., T.P, K.E., S.L.-K., A.A.I., B.M.K., J.E.O., C.E.B., A.C.H.) and Department of Biochemistry and Center for Structural Biology (R.R.H., W.T.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Chemistry (T.P.) and Center for Molecular Signaling (W.T.L., A.C.H.), Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia (D.E.S.); and AL Azhar Faculty of Medicine, New Damietta, Egypt (K.E.)
| | - Sandra Leone-Kabler
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (L.C.B., T.P, K.E., S.L.-K., A.A.I., B.M.K., J.E.O., C.E.B., A.C.H.) and Department of Biochemistry and Center for Structural Biology (R.R.H., W.T.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Chemistry (T.P.) and Center for Molecular Signaling (W.T.L., A.C.H.), Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia (D.E.S.); and AL Azhar Faculty of Medicine, New Damietta, Egypt (K.E.)
| | - Alexander A Ilyasov
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (L.C.B., T.P, K.E., S.L.-K., A.A.I., B.M.K., J.E.O., C.E.B., A.C.H.) and Department of Biochemistry and Center for Structural Biology (R.R.H., W.T.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Chemistry (T.P.) and Center for Molecular Signaling (W.T.L., A.C.H.), Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia (D.E.S.); and AL Azhar Faculty of Medicine, New Damietta, Egypt (K.E.)
| | - Bradley M Keegan
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (L.C.B., T.P, K.E., S.L.-K., A.A.I., B.M.K., J.E.O., C.E.B., A.C.H.) and Department of Biochemistry and Center for Structural Biology (R.R.H., W.T.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Chemistry (T.P.) and Center for Molecular Signaling (W.T.L., A.C.H.), Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia (D.E.S.); and AL Azhar Faculty of Medicine, New Damietta, Egypt (K.E.)
| | - Jeremy E O'Neal
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (L.C.B., T.P, K.E., S.L.-K., A.A.I., B.M.K., J.E.O., C.E.B., A.C.H.) and Department of Biochemistry and Center for Structural Biology (R.R.H., W.T.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Chemistry (T.P.) and Center for Molecular Signaling (W.T.L., A.C.H.), Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia (D.E.S.); and AL Azhar Faculty of Medicine, New Damietta, Egypt (K.E.)
| | - Caroline E Bass
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (L.C.B., T.P, K.E., S.L.-K., A.A.I., B.M.K., J.E.O., C.E.B., A.C.H.) and Department of Biochemistry and Center for Structural Biology (R.R.H., W.T.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Chemistry (T.P.) and Center for Molecular Signaling (W.T.L., A.C.H.), Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia (D.E.S.); and AL Azhar Faculty of Medicine, New Damietta, Egypt (K.E.)
| | - Roy R Hantgan
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (L.C.B., T.P, K.E., S.L.-K., A.A.I., B.M.K., J.E.O., C.E.B., A.C.H.) and Department of Biochemistry and Center for Structural Biology (R.R.H., W.T.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Chemistry (T.P.) and Center for Molecular Signaling (W.T.L., A.C.H.), Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia (D.E.S.); and AL Azhar Faculty of Medicine, New Damietta, Egypt (K.E.)
| | - W Todd Lowther
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (L.C.B., T.P, K.E., S.L.-K., A.A.I., B.M.K., J.E.O., C.E.B., A.C.H.) and Department of Biochemistry and Center for Structural Biology (R.R.H., W.T.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Chemistry (T.P.) and Center for Molecular Signaling (W.T.L., A.C.H.), Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia (D.E.S.); and AL Azhar Faculty of Medicine, New Damietta, Egypt (K.E.)
| | - Dana E Selley
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (L.C.B., T.P, K.E., S.L.-K., A.A.I., B.M.K., J.E.O., C.E.B., A.C.H.) and Department of Biochemistry and Center for Structural Biology (R.R.H., W.T.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Chemistry (T.P.) and Center for Molecular Signaling (W.T.L., A.C.H.), Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia (D.E.S.); and AL Azhar Faculty of Medicine, New Damietta, Egypt (K.E.)
| | - A Llyn C Howlett
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (L.C.B., T.P, K.E., S.L.-K., A.A.I., B.M.K., J.E.O., C.E.B., A.C.H.) and Department of Biochemistry and Center for Structural Biology (R.R.H., W.T.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Chemistry (T.P.) and Center for Molecular Signaling (W.T.L., A.C.H.), Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia (D.E.S.); and AL Azhar Faculty of Medicine, New Damietta, Egypt (K.E.)
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23
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Marucci G, Dal Ben D, Lambertucci C, Santinelli C, Spinaci A, Thomas A, Volpini R, Buccioni M. The G Protein-Coupled Receptor GPR17: Overview and Update. ChemMedChem 2016; 11:2567-2574. [PMID: 27863043 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201600453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Revised: 10/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The GPR17 receptor is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that seems to respond to two unrelated families of endogenous ligands: nucleotide sugars (UDP, UDP-galactose, and UDP-glucose) and cysteinyl leukotrienes (LTD4 , LTC4 , and LTE4 ), with significant affinity at micromolar and nanomolar concentrations, respectively. This receptor has a broad distribution at the level of the central nervous system (CNS) and is found in neurons and in a subset of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs). Unfortunately, disparate results emerging from different laboratories have resulted in a lack of clarity with regard to the role of GPR17-targeting ligands in OPC differentiation and in myelination. GPR17 is also highly expressed in organs typically undergoing ischemic damage and has various roles in specific phases of adaptations that follow a stroke. Under such conditions, GPR17 plays a crucial role; in fact, its inhibition decreases the progression of ischemic damage. This review summarizes some important features of this receptor that could be a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of demyelinating diseases and for repairing traumatic injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriella Marucci
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Via S. Agostino, 1, 62032, Camerino, MC, Italy
| | - Diego Dal Ben
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Via S. Agostino, 1, 62032, Camerino, MC, Italy
| | - Catia Lambertucci
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Via S. Agostino, 1, 62032, Camerino, MC, Italy
| | - Claudia Santinelli
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Via S. Agostino, 1, 62032, Camerino, MC, Italy
| | - Andrea Spinaci
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Via S. Agostino, 1, 62032, Camerino, MC, Italy
| | - Ajiroghene Thomas
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Via S. Agostino, 1, 62032, Camerino, MC, Italy
| | - Rosaria Volpini
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Via S. Agostino, 1, 62032, Camerino, MC, Italy
| | - Michela Buccioni
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Via S. Agostino, 1, 62032, Camerino, MC, Italy
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24
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Meraviglia V, Ulivi AF, Boccazzi M, Valenza F, Fratangeli A, Passafaro M, Lecca D, Stagni F, Giacomini A, Bartesaghi R, Abbracchio MP, Ceruti S, Rosa P. SNX27, a protein involved in down syndrome, regulates GPR17 trafficking and oligodendrocyte differentiation. Glia 2016; 64:1437-60. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.23015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2015] [Revised: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 05/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Meraviglia
- CNR - Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Medical Biotechnologies and Translational Medicine (BIOMETRA); Università Degli Studi Di Milano; Milan Italy
| | - Alessandro Francesco Ulivi
- CNR - Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Medical Biotechnologies and Translational Medicine (BIOMETRA); Università Degli Studi Di Milano; Milan Italy
| | - Marta Boccazzi
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology of Purinergic Transmission, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (DiSFeB); Università Degli Studi Di Milano; Milan Italy
| | - Fabiola Valenza
- CNR - Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Medical Biotechnologies and Translational Medicine (BIOMETRA); Università Degli Studi Di Milano; Milan Italy
| | - Alessandra Fratangeli
- CNR - Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Medical Biotechnologies and Translational Medicine (BIOMETRA); Università Degli Studi Di Milano; Milan Italy
| | - Maria Passafaro
- CNR - Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Medical Biotechnologies and Translational Medicine (BIOMETRA); Università Degli Studi Di Milano; Milan Italy
| | - Davide Lecca
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology of Purinergic Transmission, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (DiSFeB); Università Degli Studi Di Milano; Milan Italy
| | - Fiorenza Stagni
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences; Università Degli Studi Di Bologna; Bologna Italy
| | - Andrea Giacomini
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences; Università Degli Studi Di Bologna; Bologna Italy
| | - Renata Bartesaghi
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences; Università Degli Studi Di Bologna; Bologna Italy
| | - Maria P. Abbracchio
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology of Purinergic Transmission, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (DiSFeB); Università Degli Studi Di Milano; Milan Italy
| | - Stefania Ceruti
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology of Purinergic Transmission, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (DiSFeB); Università Degli Studi Di Milano; Milan Italy
| | - Patrizia Rosa
- CNR - Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Medical Biotechnologies and Translational Medicine (BIOMETRA); Università Degli Studi Di Milano; Milan Italy
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25
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Parravicini C, Daniele S, Palazzolo L, Trincavelli ML, Martini C, Zaratin P, Primi R, Coppolino G, Gianazza E, Abbracchio MP, Eberini I. A promiscuous recognition mechanism between GPR17 and SDF-1: Molecular insights. Cell Signal 2016; 28:631-42. [PMID: 26971834 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2016.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2015] [Revised: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Recent data and publications suggest a promiscuous behaviour for GPR17, a class-A GPCR operated by different classes of ligands, such as uracil nucleotides, cysteinyl-leukotrienes and oxysterols. This observation, together with the ability of several class-A GPCRs to form homo- and hetero-dimers, is likely to unveil new pathophysiological roles and novel emerging pharmacological properties for some of these GPCRs, including GPR17. This receptor shares structural, phylogenetic and functional properties with some chemokine receptors, CXCRs. Both GPR17 and CXCR2 are operated by oxysterols, and both GPR17 and CXCR ligands have been demonstrated to have a role in orchestrating inflammatory responses and oligodendrocyte precursor cell differentiation to myelinating cells in acute and chronic diseases of the central nervous system. Here, by combining in silico modelling data with in vitro validation in (i) a classical reference pharmacological assay for GPCR activity and (ii) a model of maturation of primary oligodendrocyte precursor cells, we demonstrate that GPR17 can be activated by SDF-1, a ligand of chemokine receptors CXCR4 and CXCR7, and investigate the underlying molecular recognition mechanism. We also demonstrate that cangrelor, a GPR17 orthosteric antagonist, can block the SDF-1-mediated activation of GPR17 in a concentration-dependent manner. The ability of GPR17 to respond to different classes of GPCR ligands suggests that this receptor modifies its function depending on the extracellular mileu changes occurring under specific pathophysiological conditions and advocates it as a strategic target for neurodegenerative diseases with an inflammatory/immune component.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Parravicini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Simona Daniele
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy; Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Pisa, Via Bonanno Pisano 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Luca Palazzolo
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | | | - Claudia Martini
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Pisa, Via Bonanno Pisano 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Paola Zaratin
- Fondazione Italiana Sclerosi Multipla, Via Operai 40, 16149 Genova, Italy.
| | - Roberto Primi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Giusy Coppolino
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Elisabetta Gianazza
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Maria P Abbracchio
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Ivano Eberini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy; Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche e Cliniche "L. Sacco", Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Gian Battista Grassi 74, 20157 Milano, Italy.
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26
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Lombardi A, Menconi F, Greenberg D, Concepcion E, Leo M, Rocchi R, Marinó M, Keddache M, Tomer Y. Dissecting the Genetic Susceptibility to Graves' Disease in a Cohort of Patients of Italian Origin. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2016; 7:21. [PMID: 27014188 PMCID: PMC4781855 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2016.00021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Graves' disease (GD) is an autoimmune oligogenic disorder with a strong hereditary component. Several GD susceptibility genes have been identified and confirmed during the last two decades. However, there are very few studies that evaluated susceptibility genes for GD in specific geographic subsets. Previously, we mapped a new locus on chromosome 3q that was unique to GD families of Italian origin. In the present study, we used association analysis of single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) at the 3q locus in a cohort of GD patients of Italian origin in order to prioritize the best candidates among the known genes in this locus to choose the one(s) best supported by the association. DNA samples were genotyped using the Illumina GoldenGate genotyping assay analyzing 690 SNP in the linked 3q locus covering all 124 linkage disequilibrium blocks in this locus. Candidate non-HLA (human-leukocyte-antigen) genes previously reported to be associated with GD and/or other autoimmune disorders were analyzed separately. Three SNPs in the 3q locus showed a nominal association (p < 0.05): rs13097181, rs763313, and rs6792646. Albeit these could not be further validated by multiple comparison correction, we were prioritizing candidate genes at a locus already known to harbor a GD-related gene, not hypothesis testing. Moreover, we found significant associations with the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor (TSHR) gene, the cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) gene, and the thyroglobulin (TG) gene. In conclusion, we identified three SNPs on chromosome 3q that may map a new GD susceptibility gene in this region which is unique to the Italian population. Furthermore, we confirmed that the TSHR, the CTLA-4, and the TG genes are associated with GD in Italians. Our findings highlight the influence of ethnicity and geographic variations on the genetic susceptibility to GD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Lombardi
- Division of Endocrinology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- *Correspondence: Angela Lombardi, ; Yaron Tomer,
| | | | - David Greenberg
- Battelle Center for Mathematical Medicine, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Erlinda Concepcion
- Division of Endocrinology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Marenza Leo
- Endocrinology, University Hospital of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | | | | | - Mehdi Keddache
- Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Yaron Tomer
- Division of Endocrinology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Bronx VA Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA
- *Correspondence: Angela Lombardi, ; Yaron Tomer,
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27
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Daniele S, Zappelli E, Martini C. Trazodone regulates neurotrophic/growth factors, mitogen-activated protein kinases and lactate release in human primary astrocytes. J Neuroinflammation 2015; 12:225. [PMID: 26627476 PMCID: PMC4666178 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-015-0446-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Accepted: 11/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the central nervous system, glial cells provide metabolic and trophic support to neurons and respond to protracted stress and insults by up-regulating inflammatory processes. Reactive astrocytes and microglia are associated with the pathophysiology of neuronal injury, neurodegenerative diseases and major depression, in both animal models and human brains. Several studies have reported clear anti-inflammatory effects of anti-depressant treatment on astrocytes, especially in models of neurological disorders. Trazodone (TDZ) is a triazolopyridine derivative that is structurally unrelated to other major classes of antidepressants. Although the molecular mechanisms of TDZ in neurons have been investigated, it is unclear whether astrocytes are also a TDZ target. METHODS The effects of TDZ on human astrocytes were investigated in physiological conditions and following inflammatory insult with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Astrocytes were assessed for their responses to pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines, and the receptors and signalling pathways involved in TDZ-mediated effects were evaluated. RESULTS TDZ had no effect on cell proliferation, but it decreased pro-inflammatory mediator release and modulated trophic and transcription factor mRNA expression. Following TDZ treatment, the AKT pathway was activated, whereas extracellular signal-regulated kinase and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase were inhibited. Most importantly, a 72-h TDZ pre-treatment before inflammatory insult completely reversed the anti-proliferative effects induced by LPS-TNF-α. The expression or the activity of inflammatory mediators, including interleukin-6, c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase and nuclear factor κB, were also reduced. Furthermore, TDZ affected astrocyte metabolic support to neurons by counteracting the inflammation-mediated lactate decrease. Finally, TDZ protected neuronal-like cells against neurotoxicity mediated by activated astrocytes. These effects mainly involved an activation of 5-HT1A and an antagonism at 5-HT2A/C serotonin receptors. Fluoxetine, used in parallel, showed similar final effects nevertheless it activates different receptors/intracellular pathways. CONCLUSIONS Altogether, our results demonstrated that TDZ directly acts on astrocytes by regulating intracellular signalling pathways and increasing specific astrocyte-derived neurotrophic factor expression and lactate release. TDZ may contribute to neuronal support by normalizing trophic and metabolic support during neuroinflammation, which is associated with neurological diseases, including major depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Daniele
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, Via Bonanno Pisano, 6, Pisa, 56126, PI, Italy.
| | - Elisa Zappelli
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, Via Bonanno Pisano, 6, Pisa, 56126, PI, Italy.
| | - Claudia Martini
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, Via Bonanno Pisano, 6, Pisa, 56126, PI, Italy.
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28
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CNS remyelination as a novel reparative approach to neurodegenerative diseases: The roles of purinergic signaling and the P2Y-like receptor GPR17. Neuropharmacology 2015; 104:82-93. [PMID: 26453964 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Revised: 10/02/2015] [Accepted: 10/03/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Oligodendrocytes are the myelin-forming cells in the CNS. They enwrap axons, thus permitting fast impulse transmission and exerting trophic actions on neurons. Demyelination accompanied by neurological deficit is a rather frequent condition that is not only associated with multiple sclerosis but has been also recognized in several other neurodegenerative diseases, including brain trauma and stroke, Alzheimer's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Recently, alterations of myelin function have been also reported in neuropsychiatric diseases, like depression and autism. Highly relevant for therapeutic purposes, oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) still persist in the adult brain and spinal cord. These cells are normally rather quiescent, but under specific circumstances, they can be stimulated to undergo differentiation and generate mature myelinating oligodendrocytes. Thus, approaches aimed at restoring myelin integrity and at fostering a correct oligodendrocyte function are now viewed as novel therapeutic opportunities for both neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases. Both OPCs and mature oligodendrocytes express purinergic receptors. For some of these receptors, expression is restricted at specific differentiation stages, suggesting key roles in OPCs maturation and myelination. Some of these receptors are altered under demyelinating conditions, suggesting that their dysregulation may contribute to disease development and could represent adequate new targets for remyelinating therapies. Here, we shall describe the current literature available on all these receptors, with special emphasis on the P2Y-like GPR17 receptor, that represents one of the most studied receptor subtypes in these cells. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Purines in Neurodegeneration and Neuroregeneration'.
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Key Words
- 2′-Deoxy-N(6)-methyladenosine 3′,5'-bisphosphate ammonium salt (MRS2179)
- 3-(2-carboxy-4,6-dichloro-indol-3-yl)propionic acid (MDL29,951)
- 3-[4-[2-[ [6-amino-9-[(2R,3R,4S,5S)-5-(ethylcarbamoyl)-3,4-dihydroxy-oxolan-2-yl]purin-2-yl]amino]ethyl]phenyl]propanoic acid (CGS21680)
- 7-(2-phenylethyl)-5-amino-2-(2-furyl)-pyrazolo-[4,3-e]-1,2,4-triazolo[1,5-c]pyrimidine (SCH58261)
- ADP
- ATP
- Adenosine
- Brilliant blue G (BBG)
- Leukotriene D4 (LTD(4))
- Montelukast
- N6-cyclohexyladenosine (CHA)
- Oligodendrocytes
- Oxidized ATP (oxATP)
- Purinergic receptors
- Rapamycin
- Remyelination
- UDP
- UDP-Glucose
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29
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Fumagalli M, Bonfanti E, Daniele S, Zappelli E, Lecca D, Martini C, Trincavelli ML, Abbracchio MP. The ubiquitin ligase Mdm2 controls oligodendrocyte maturation by intertwining mTOR with G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 in the regulation of GPR17 receptor desensitization. Glia 2015; 63:2327-39. [PMID: 26228571 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
During oligodendrocyte precursor cell (OPC) differentiation, defective control of the membrane receptor GPR17 has been suggested to block cell maturation and impair remyelination under demyelinating conditions. After the immature oligodendrocyte stage, to enable cells to complete maturation, GPR17 is physiologically down-regulated via phosphorylation/desensitization by G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs); conversely, GRKs are regulated by the "mammalian target of rapamycin" mTOR. However, how GRKs and mTOR are connected to each other in modulating GPR17 function and oligodendrogenesis has remained elusive. Here we show, for the first time, a role for Murine double minute 2 (Mdm2), a ligase previously involved in ubiquitination/degradation of the onco-suppressor p53 protein. In maturing OPCs, both rapamycin and Nutlin-3, a small molecule inhibitor of Mdm2-p53 interactions, increased GRK2 sequestration by Mdm2, leading to impaired GPR17 down-regulation and OPC maturation block. Thus, Mdm2 intertwines mTOR with GRK2 in regulating GPR17 and oligodendrogenesis and represents a novel actor in myelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Fumagalli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Bonfanti
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | | | | | - Davide Lecca
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | | | | | - Maria P Abbracchio
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Milan, Italy
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30
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Oxysterols act as promiscuous ligands of class-A GPCRs: In silico molecular modeling and in vitro validation. Cell Signal 2014; 26:2614-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2014.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2014] [Accepted: 08/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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31
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Boda E, Di Maria S, Rosa P, Taylor V, Abbracchio MP, Buffo A. Early phenotypic asymmetry of sister oligodendrocyte progenitor cells after mitosis and its modulation by aging and extrinsic factors. Glia 2014; 63:271-86. [PMID: 25213035 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2014] [Accepted: 08/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) persist in the adult central nervous system and guarantee oligodendrocyte turnover throughout life. It remains obscure how OPCs avoid exhaustion during adulthood. Similar to stem cells, OPCs could self-maintain by undergoing asymmetric divisions generating a mixed progeny either keeping a progenitor phenotype or proceeding to differentiation. To address this issue, we examined the distribution of stage-specific markers in sister OPCs during mitosis and later after cell birth, and assessed its correlation with distinct short-term fates. In both the adult and juvenile cerebral cortex a fraction of dividing OPCs gives rise to sister cells with diverse immunophenotypic profiles and short-term behaviors. Such heterogeneity appears as cells exit cytokinesis, but does not derive from the asymmetric segregation of molecules such as NG2 or PDGFRa expressed in the mother cell. Rather, rapid downregulation of OPC markers and upregulation of molecules associated with lineage progression contributes to generate early sister OPC asymmetry. Analyses during aging and upon exposure to physiological (i.e., increased motor activity) and pathological (i.e., trauma or demyelination) stimuli showed that both intrinsic and environmental factors contribute to determine the fraction of symmetric and asymmetric OPC pairs and the phenotype of the OPC progeny as soon as cells exit mitosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrica Boda
- Department of Neuroscience, Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Università degli Studi di Torino, Regione Gonzole, 10-10043, Orbassano (Turin), Italy
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32
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Zappelli E, Daniele S, Abbracchio MP, Martini C, Trincavelli ML. A rapid and efficient immunoenzymatic assay to detect receptor protein interactions: G protein-coupled receptors. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15:6252-64. [PMID: 24733071 PMCID: PMC4013626 DOI: 10.3390/ijms15046252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2014] [Revised: 03/10/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent one of the largest families of cell surface receptors, and are the target of at least one-third of the current therapeutic drugs on the market. Along their life cycle, GPCRs are accompanied by a range of specialized GPCR-interacting proteins (GIPs), which take part in receptor proper folding, targeting to the appropriate subcellular compartments and in receptor signaling tasks, and also in receptor regulation processes, such as desensitization and internalization. The direction of protein-protein interactions and multi-protein complexes formation is crucial in understanding protein function and their implication in pathological events. Although several methods have been already developed to assay protein complexes, some of them are quite laborious, expensive, and, more important, they do not generate fully quantitative results. Herein, we show a rapid immunoenzymatic assay to quantify GPCR interactionswith its signaling proteins. The recently de-orphanized GPCR, GPR17, was chosen as a GPCR prototype to optimize the assay. In a GPR17 transfected cell line and primary oligodendrocyte precursor cells, GPR17 interaction with proteins involved in the typical GPCR regulation, such as desensitization and internalization machinery, was investigated. The obtained results were validated by co-immunoprecipitation experiments, confirming this new method as a rapid and quantitative assay to study protein-protein interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Zappelli
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Simona Daniele
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Maria P Abbracchio
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Claudia Martini
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy.
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