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Solís KH, Romero-Ávila MT, Rincón-Heredia R, García-Sáinz JA. Lysophosphatidic Acid Receptor 3 (LPA3): Signaling and Phosphorylation Sites. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6491. [PMID: 38928196 PMCID: PMC11203643 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25126491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2024] [Revised: 06/03/2024] [Accepted: 06/08/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
LPA3 receptors were expressed in TREx HEK 293 cells, and their signaling and phosphorylation were studied. The agonist, lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), increased intracellular calcium and ERK phosphorylation through pertussis toxin-insensitive processes. Phorbol myristate acetate, but not LPA, desensitizes LPA3-mediated calcium signaling, the agonists, and the phorbol ester-induced LPA3 internalization. Pitstop 2 (clathrin heavy chain inhibitor) markedly reduced LPA-induced receptor internalization; in contrast, phorbol ester-induced internalization was only delayed. LPA induced rapid β-arrestin-LPA3 receptor association. The agonist and the phorbol ester-induced marked LPA3 receptor phosphorylation, and phosphorylation sites were detected using mass spectrometry. Phosphorylated residues were detected in the intracellular loop 3 (S221, T224, S225, and S229) and in the carboxyl terminus (S321, S325, S331, T333, S335, Y337, and S343). Interestingly, phosphorylation sites are within sequences predicted to constitute β-arrestin binding sites. These data provide insight into LPA3 receptor signaling and regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. Helivier Solís
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Desarrollo, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Ap. Postal 70-600, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico; (K.H.S.); (M.T.R.-Á.)
| | - M. Teresa Romero-Ávila
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Desarrollo, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Ap. Postal 70-600, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico; (K.H.S.); (M.T.R.-Á.)
| | - Ruth Rincón-Heredia
- Unidad de Imagenología, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Ap. Postal 70-600, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico;
| | - J. Adolfo García-Sáinz
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Desarrollo, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Ap. Postal 70-600, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico; (K.H.S.); (M.T.R.-Á.)
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2
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Ferng D, Sun W, Shieh BH. Differential activation of rhodopsin triggers distinct endocytic trafficking and recycling in vivo via differential phosphorylation. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0303882. [PMID: 38848405 PMCID: PMC11161057 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0303882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Activated GPCRs are phosphorylated and internalized mostly via clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME), which are then sorted for recycling or degradation. We investigated how differential activation of the same GPCR affects its endocytic trafficking in vivo using rhodopsin as a model in pupal photoreceptors of flies expressing mCherry-tagged rhodopsin 1 (Rh1-mC) or GFP-tagged arrestin 1 (Arr1-GFP). Upon blue light stimulation, activated Rh1 recruited Arr1-GFP to the rhabdomere, which became co-internalized and accumulated in cytoplasmic vesicles of photoreceptors. This internalization was eliminated in shits1 mutants affecting dynamin. Moreover, it was blocked by either rdgA or rdgB mutations affecting the PIP2 biosynthesis. Together, the blue light-initiated internalization of Rh1 and Arr1 belongs to CME. Green light stimulation also triggered the internalization and accumulation of activated Rh1-mC in the cytoplasm but with faster kinetics. Importantly, Arr1-GFP was also recruited to the rhabdomere but not co-internalized with Rh1-mC. This endocytosis was not affected in shits1 nor rdgA mutants, indicating it is not CME. We explored the fate of internalized Rh1-mC following CME and observed it remained in cytoplasmic vesicles following 30 min of dark adaptation. In contrast, in the non-CME Rh1-mC appeared readily recycled back to the rhabdomere within five min of dark treatment. This faster recycling may be regulated by rhodopsin phosphatase, RdgC. Together, we demonstrate two distinct endocytic and recycling mechanisms of Rh1 via two light stimulations. It appears that each stimulation triggers a distinct conformation leading to different phosphorylation patterns of Rh1 capable of recruiting Arr1 to rhabdomeres. However, a more stable interaction leads to the co-internalization of Arr1 that orchestrates CME. A stronger Arr1 association appears to impede the recycling of the phosphorylated Rh1 by preventing the recruitment of RdgC. We conclude that conformations of activated rhodopsin determine the downstream outputs upon phosphorylation that confers differential protein-protein interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darwin Ferng
- Department of Pharmacology, Center for Molecular Neuroscience and Vision Research Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States of America
| | - Wesley Sun
- Department of Pharmacology, Center for Molecular Neuroscience and Vision Research Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States of America
| | - Bih-Hwa Shieh
- Department of Pharmacology, Center for Molecular Neuroscience and Vision Research Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States of America
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Okamoto Y, Shikano S. Emerging roles of a chemoattractant receptor GPR15 and ligands in pathophysiology. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1179456. [PMID: 37457732 PMCID: PMC10348422 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1179456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemokine receptors play a central role in the maintenance of immune homeostasis and development of inflammation by directing leukocyte migration to tissues. GPR15 is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that was initially known as a co-receptor for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), with structural similarity to other members of the chemoattractant receptor family. Since the discovery of its novel function as a colon-homing receptor of T cells in mice a decade ago, GPR15 has been rapidly gaining attention for its involvement in a variety of inflammatory and immune disorders. The recent identification of its natural ligand C10orf99, a chemokine-like polypeptide strongly expressed in gastrointestinal tissues, has established that GPR15-C10orf99 is a novel signaling axis that controls intestinal homeostasis and inflammation through the migration of immune cells. In addition, it has been demonstrated that C10orf99-independent functions of GPR15 and GPR15-independent activities of C10orf99 also play significant roles in the pathophysiology. Therefore, GPR15 and its ligands are potential therapeutic targets. To provide a basis for the future development of GPR15- or GPR15 ligand-targeted therapeutics, we have summarized the latest advances in the role of GPR15 and its ligands in human diseases as well as the molecular mechanisms that regulate GPR15 expression and functions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sojin Shikano
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
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Chevalier P, Roy P, Bessière F, Morel E, Ankou B, Morgan G, Halder I, London B, Minobe WA, Slavov D, Delinière A, Bochaton T, Paganelli F, Lesavre N, Boiteux C, Mansourati J, Maury P, Clerici G, Winum PF, Huebler SP, Carroll IA, Bristow MR. Impact of Neuroeffector Adrenergic Receptor Polymorphisms on Incident Ventricular Fibrillation During Acute Myocardial Ischemia. J Am Heart Assoc 2023; 12:e025368. [PMID: 36926933 PMCID: PMC10111522 DOI: 10.1161/jaha.122.025368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
Background Cardiac adrenergic receptor gene polymorphisms have the potential to influence risk of developing ventricular fibrillation (VF) during ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction, but no previous study has comprehensively investigated those most likely to alter norepinephrine release, signal transduction, or biased signaling. Methods and Results In a case-control study, we recruited 953 patients with ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction without previous cardiac history, 477 with primary VF, and 476 controls without VF, and genotyped them for ADRB1 Arg389Gly and Ser49Gly, ADRB2 Gln27Glu and Gly16Arg, and ADRA2C Ins322-325Del. Within each minor allele-containing genotype, haplotype, or 2-genotype combination, patients with incident VF were compared with non-VF controls by odds ratios (OR) of variant frequencies referenced against major allele homozygotes. Of 156 investigated genetic constructs, 19 (12.2%) exhibited significantly (P<0.05) reduced association with incident VF, and none was associated with increased VF risk except for ADRB1 Gly389 homozygotes in the subset of patients not receiving β-blockers. ADRB1 Gly49 carriers (prevalence 23.0%) had an OR (95% CI) of 0.70 (0.49-0.98), and the ADRA2C 322-325 deletion (Del) carriers (prevalence 13.5%) had an OR of 0.61 (0.39-0.94). When present in genotype combinations (8 each), both ADRB1 Gly49 carriers (OR, 0.67 [0.56-0.80]) and ADRA2C Del carriers (OR, 0.57 [0.45- 0.71]) were associated with reduced VF risk. Conclusions In ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction, the adrenergic receptor minor alleles ADRB1 Gly49, whose encoded receptor undergoes enhanced agonist-mediated internalization and β-arrestin interactions leading to cardioprotective biased signaling, and ADRA2C Del322-325, whose receptor causes disinhibition of norepinephrine release, are associated with a lower incidence of VF. Registration URL: https://clinicaltrials.gov; Unique identifier: NCT00859300.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Chevalier
- Rhythmology Department Hospital Louis Pradel Lyon France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 Université de Lyon Lyon France
| | - Pascal Roy
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Services Biostatistiques Lyon France
| | | | - Elodie Morel
- Rhythmology Department Hospital Louis Pradel Lyon France
| | | | - Gina Morgan
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine University of Iowa Iowa City IA
| | - Indrani Halder
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine University of Iowa Iowa City IA
| | - Barry London
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine University of Iowa Iowa City IA
| | - Wayne A Minobe
- Division of Cardiology University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus Aurora CO
| | - Dobromir Slavov
- Division of Cardiology University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus Aurora CO
| | | | - Thomas Bochaton
- Department of Intensive Cardiac Care Hospital Louis Pradel Lyon France
| | | | | | | | - Jacques Mansourati
- Cardiology Department Hôpital de La Cavale Blanche, Brest University Hospital Brest France
| | - Philippe Maury
- Cardiology Department University Hospital Rangueil Toulouse France
| | - Gaël Clerici
- Cardiology Department Saint Pierre University Hospital La Réunion France
| | | | | | - Ian A Carroll
- Division of Cardiology University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus Aurora CO
- ARCA Biopharma Westminster CO
| | - Michael R Bristow
- Division of Cardiology University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus Aurora CO
- ARCA Biopharma Westminster CO
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Bahouth SW, Nooh MM, Mancarella S. Involvement of SAP97 anchored multiprotein complexes in regulating cardiorenal signaling and trafficking networks. Biochem Pharmacol 2023; 208:115406. [PMID: 36596415 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2022.115406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 12/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
SAP97 is a member of the MAGUK family of proteins, but unlike other MAGUK proteins that are selectively expressed in the CNS, SAP97 is also expressed in peripheral organs, like the heart and kidneys. SAP97 has several protein binding cassettes, and this review will describe their involvement in creating SAP97-anchored multiprotein networks. SAP97-anchored networks localized at the inner leaflet of the cell membrane play a major role in trafficking and targeting of membrane G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR), channels, and structural proteins. SAP97 plays a major role in compartmentalizing voltage gated sodium and potassium channels to specific cellular compartments of heart cells. SAP97 undergoes extensive alternative splicing. These splice variants give rise to different SAP97 isoforms that alter its cellular localization, networking, signaling and trafficking effects. Regarding GPCR, SAP97 binds to the β1-adrenergic receptor and recruits AKAP5/PKA and PDE4D8 to create a multiprotein complex that regulates trafficking and signaling of cardiac β1-AR. In the kidneys, SAP97 anchored networks played a role in trafficking of aquaporin-2 water channels. Cardiac specific ablation of SAP97 (SAP97-cKO) resulted in cardiac hypertrophy and failure in aging mice. Similarly, instituting transverse aortic constriction (TAC) in young SAP97 c-KO mice exacerbated TAC-induced cardiac remodeling and dysfunction. These findings highlight a critical role for SAP97 in the pathophysiology of a number of cardiac and renal diseases, suggesting that SAP97 is a relevant target for drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suleiman W Bahouth
- Department of Pharmacology, Addiction Science and Toxicology, The University of Tennessee-Health Sciences Center, Memphis, TN, United States.
| | - Mohammed M Nooh
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt and Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, October 6 University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Salvatore Mancarella
- Department of Physiology, The University of Tennessee-Health Sciences Center, Memphis, TN, United States
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Chen H, Zhang S, Zhang X, Liu H. QR code model: a new possibility for GPCR phosphorylation recognition. Cell Commun Signal 2022; 20:23. [PMID: 35236365 PMCID: PMC8889771 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-022-00832-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of membrane proteins in the human body and are responsible for accurately transmitting extracellular information to cells. Arrestin is an important member of the GPCR signaling pathway. The main function of arrestin is to assist receptor desensitization, endocytosis and signal transduction. In these processes, the recognition and binding of arrestin to phosphorylated GPCRs is fundamental. However, the mechanism by which arrestin recognizes phosphorylated GPCRs is not fully understood. The GPCR phosphorylation recognition "bar code model" and "flute" model describe the basic process of receptor phosphorylation recognition in terms of receptor phosphorylation sites, arrestin structural changes and downstream signaling. These two models suggest that GPCR phosphorylation recognition is a process involving multiple factors. This process can be described by a "QR code" model in which ligands, GPCRs, G protein-coupled receptor kinase, arrestin, and phosphorylation sites work together to determine the biological functions of phosphorylated receptors. Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Chen
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, 10 Xitoutiao, You An Men Street, Beijing, 100069, People's Republic of China
| | - Suli Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, 10 Xitoutiao, You An Men Street, Beijing, 100069, People's Republic of China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Metabolic Disorders Related Cardiovascular Disease, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069, People's Republic of China
| | - Xi Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, 10 Xitoutiao, You An Men Street, Beijing, 100069, People's Republic of China
| | - Huirong Liu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, 10 Xitoutiao, You An Men Street, Beijing, 100069, People's Republic of China. .,Beijing Key Laboratory of Metabolic Disorders Related Cardiovascular Disease, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069, People's Republic of China.
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Hong W, Yang B, He Q, Wang J, Weng Q. New Insights of CCR7 Signaling in Dendritic Cell Migration and Inflammatory Diseases. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:841687. [PMID: 35281921 PMCID: PMC8914285 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.841687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
CCR7, collaborated with its ligands CCL19 and CCL21, controls extensive migratory events in the immune system. CCR7-bearing dendritic cells can swarm into T-cell zones in lymph nodes, initiating the antigen presentation and T-cell response. Abnormal expression of CCR7 in dendritic cells will cause a series of inflammatory diseases due to the chaotic dendritic cell trafficking. In this review, we take an in-depth look at the structural–functional domains of CCR7 and CCR7-bearing dendritic cell trajectory to lymph nodes. Then, we summarize the regulatory network of CCR7, including transcriptional regulation, translational and posttranslational regulation, internalization, desensitization, and recycling. Furthermore, the potential strategies of targeting the CCR7 network to regulate dendritic cell migration and to deal with inflammatory diseases are integrated, which not only emphasizes the possibility of CCR7 to be a potential target of immunotherapy but also has an implication on the homing of dendritic cells to benefit inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenxiang Hong
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Bo Yang
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qiaojun He
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jiajia Wang
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Qinjie Weng, ; Jiajia Wang,
| | - Qinjie Weng
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Qinjie Weng, ; Jiajia Wang,
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Cholesterol-dependent endocytosis of GPCRs: implications in pathophysiology and therapeutics. Biophys Rev 2021; 13:1007-1017. [DOI: 10.1007/s12551-021-00878-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
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Guo W, Li W, Su Y, Liu S, Kan X, Ran X, Cao Y, Fu S, Liu J. GPR109A alleviate mastitis and enhances the blood milk barrier by activating AMPK/Nrf2 and autophagy. Int J Biol Sci 2021; 17:4271-4284. [PMID: 34803497 PMCID: PMC8579459 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.62380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Mastitis causes great psychological and physical pain among women. Our previous studies found that niacin has anti-inflammatory effect, and the realization of this function depends on GPR109A. However, there are no previous reports about the anti-inflammatory function of GPR109A in mastitis. In our study, we observed the effect of niacin on the WT and GPR109A-/- mice mastitis model. The results showed that administration of niacin to WT mice reduced the damage, proinflammatory mediators and protected the integrity of the blood milk barrier in mammary gland. While in GPR109A-/- mice, there was no effect on the above indexes. In mammary epithelial cells, GPR109A was able to promote autophagy and Nrf2 nuclear import through AMPK. In LPS-induced mammary epithelial cells, niacin inhibited the LPS-induced inflammatory response and downregulation of tight junction proteins, and these effects were eliminated by knocking down GPR109A, blocking autophagy or inhibiting Nrf2 nuclear import. These results indicate that in mastitis, GPR109A promotes autophagy and Nrf2 nuclear import through AMPK, thereby inhibiting inflammatory damage to the mammary gland and repairing the blood milk barrier. Our results suggested that GPR109A may be a potential target for the treatment of mastitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjin Guo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Wen Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Yingchun Su
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Shu Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Xingchi Kan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Xin Ran
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Yu Cao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Shoupeng Fu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Juxiong Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
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McGlone ER, Manchanda Y, Jones B, Pickford P, Inoue A, Carling D, Bloom SR, Tan T, Tomas A. Receptor Activity-Modifying Protein 2 (RAMP2) alters glucagon receptor trafficking in hepatocytes with functional effects on receptor signalling. Mol Metab 2021; 53:101296. [PMID: 34271220 PMCID: PMC8363841 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2021.101296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2021] [Revised: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Receptor Activity-Modifying Protein 2 (RAMP2) is a chaperone protein which allosterically binds to and interacts with the glucagon receptor (GCGR). The aims of this study were to investigate the effects of RAMP2 on GCGR trafficking and signalling in the liver, where glucagon (GCG) is important for carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. METHODS Subcellular localisation of GCGR in the presence and absence of RAMP2 was investigated using confocal microscopy, trafficking and radioligand binding assays in human embryonic kidney (HEK293T) and human hepatoma (Huh7) cells. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) lacking the Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome protein and scar homologue (WASH) complex and the trafficking inhibitor monensin were used to investigate the effect of halted recycling of internalised proteins on GCGR subcellular localisation and signalling in the absence of RAMP2. NanoBiT complementation and cyclic AMP assays were used to study the functional effect of RAMP2 on the recruitment and activation of GCGR signalling mediators. Response to hepatic RAMP2 upregulation in lean and obese adult mice using a bespoke adeno-associated viral vector was also studied. RESULTS GCGR is predominantly localised at the plasma membrane in the absence of RAMP2 and exhibits remarkably slow internalisation in response to agonist stimulation. Rapid intracellular accumulation of GCG-stimulated GCGR in cells lacking the WASH complex or in the presence of monensin indicates that activated GCGR undergoes continuous cycles of internalisation and recycling, despite apparent GCGR plasma membrane localisation up to 40 min post-stimulation. Co-expression of RAMP2 induces GCGR internalisation both basally and in response to agonist stimulation. The intracellular retention of GCGR in the presence of RAMP2 confers a bias away from β-arrestin-2 recruitment coupled with increased activation of Gαs proteins at endosomes. This is associated with increased short-term efficacy for glucagon-stimulated cAMP production, although long-term signalling is dampened by increased receptor lysosomal targeting for degradation. Despite these signalling effects, only a minor disturbance of carbohydrate metabolism was observed in mice with upregulated hepatic RAMP2. CONCLUSIONS By retaining GCGR intracellularly, RAMP2 alters the spatiotemporal pattern of GCGR signalling. Further exploration of the effects of RAMP2 on GCGR in vivo is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Rose McGlone
- Section of Endocrinology and Investigative Medicine, Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Yusman Manchanda
- Section of Cell Biology and Functional Genomics, Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Ben Jones
- Section of Endocrinology and Investigative Medicine, Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Phil Pickford
- Section of Endocrinology and Investigative Medicine, Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Asuka Inoue
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - David Carling
- MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Stephen R Bloom
- Section of Endocrinology and Investigative Medicine, Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Tricia Tan
- Section of Endocrinology and Investigative Medicine, Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK.
| | - Alejandra Tomas
- Section of Cell Biology and Functional Genomics, Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK.
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Kunselman JM, Lott J, Puthenveedu MA. Mechanisms of selective G protein-coupled receptor localization and trafficking. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2021; 71:158-165. [PMID: 33965654 PMCID: PMC8328924 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2021.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The trafficking of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) to different membrane compartments has recently emerged as being a critical determinant of the signaling profiles of activation. GPCRs, which share many structural and functional similarities, also share many mechanisms that traffic them between compartments. This sharing raises the question of how the trafficking of individual GPCRs is selectively regulated. Here, we will discuss recent studies addressing the mechanisms that contribute to selectivity in endocytic and biosynthetic trafficking of GPCRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M Kunselman
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Joshua Lott
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Manojkumar A Puthenveedu
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
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12
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Solís KH, Romero-Ávila MT, Guzmán-Silva A, García-Sáinz JA. The LPA 3 Receptor: Regulation and Activation of Signaling Pathways. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22136704. [PMID: 34201414 PMCID: PMC8269014 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22136704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The lysophosphatidic acid 3 receptor (LPA3) participates in different physiological actions and in the pathogenesis of many diseases through the activation of different signal pathways. Knowledge of the regulation of the function of the LPA3 receptor is a crucial element for defining its roles in health and disease. This review describes what is known about the signaling pathways activated in terms of its various actions. Next, we review knowledge on the structure of the LPA3 receptor, the domains found, and the roles that the latter might play in ligand recognition, signaling, and cellular localization. Currently, there is some information on the action of LPA3 in different cells and whole organisms, but very little is known about the regulation of its function. Areas in which there is a gap in our knowledge are indicated in order to further stimulate experimental work on this receptor and on other members of the LPA receptor family. We are convinced that knowledge on how this receptor is activated, the signaling pathways employed and how the receptor internalization and desensitization are controlled will help design new therapeutic interventions for treating diseases in which the LPA3 receptor is implicated.
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Adrenergic and Glucocorticoid Receptors in the Pulmonary Health Effects of Air Pollution. TOXICS 2021; 9:toxics9060132. [PMID: 34200050 PMCID: PMC8226814 DOI: 10.3390/toxics9060132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Adrenergic receptors (ARs) and glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) are activated by circulating catecholamines and glucocorticoids, respectively. These receptors regulate the homeostasis of physiological processes with specificity via multiple receptor subtypes, wide tissue-specific distribution, and interactions with other receptors and signaling processes. Based on their physiological roles, ARs and GRs are widely manipulated therapeutically for chronic diseases. Although these receptors play key roles in inflammatory and cellular homeostatic processes, little research has addressed their involvement in the health effects of air pollution. We have recently demonstrated that ozone, a prototypic air pollutant, mediates pulmonary and systemic effects through the activation of these receptors. A single exposure to ozone induces the sympathetic–adrenal–medullary and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axes, resulting in the release of epinephrine and corticosterone into the circulation. These hormones act as ligands for ARs and GRs. The roles of beta AR (βARs) and GRs in ozone-induced pulmonary injury and inflammation were confirmed in a number of studies using interventional approaches. Accordingly, the activation status of ARs and GRs is critical in mediating the health effects of inhaled irritants. In this paper, we review the cellular distribution and functions of ARs and GRs, their lung-specific localization, and their involvement in ozone-induced health effects, in order to capture attention for future research.
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Marzook A, Tomas A, Jones B. The Interplay of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Trafficking and Signalling in Pancreatic Beta Cells. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021; 12:678055. [PMID: 34040588 PMCID: PMC8143046 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.678055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor (GLP-1R) is a class B G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) which mediates the effects of GLP-1, an incretin hormone secreted primarily from L-cells in the intestine and within the central nervous system. The GLP-1R, upon activation, exerts several metabolic effects including the release of insulin and suppression of appetite, and has, accordingly, become an important target for the treatment for type 2 diabetes (T2D). Recently, there has been heightened interest in how the activated GLP-1R is trafficked between different endomembrane compartments, controlling the spatial origin and duration of intracellular signals. The discovery of "biased" GLP-1R agonists that show altered trafficking profiles and selective engagement with different intracellular effectors has added to the tools available to study the mechanisms and physiological importance of these processes. In this review we survey early and recent work that has shed light on the interplay between GLP-1R signalling and trafficking, and how it might be therapeutically tractable for T2D and related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amaara Marzook
- Section of Endocrinology and Investigative Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Alejandra Tomas
- Section of Cell Biology and Functional Genomics, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ben Jones
- Section of Endocrinology and Investigative Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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15
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Benhadda A, Quentin E, Moutkine I, Chanrion B, Russeau M, Marin P, Levi S, Maroteaux L. Serotonin 2B Receptor by Interacting with NMDA Receptor and CIPP Protein Complex May Control Structural Plasticity at Glutamatergic Synapses. ACS Chem Neurosci 2021; 12:1133-1149. [PMID: 33739808 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The serotonin 2B (5-HT2B) receptor coupled to Gq-protein contributes to the control of neuronal excitability and is implicated in various psychiatric disorders. The mechanisms underlying its brain function are not fully described. Using peptide affinity chromatography combined with mass spectrometry, we found that the PDZ binding motif of the 5-HT2B receptor located at its C-terminal end interacts with the scaffolding protein channel interacting PDZ protein (CIPP). We then showed, in COS-7 cells, that the association of the 5-HT2B receptor to CIPP enhanced receptor-operated inositol phosphate (IP) production without affecting its cell surface and intracellular levels. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments revealed that CIPP, the 5-HT2B receptor, and the NR1 subunit of the NMDA receptor form a macromolecular complex. CIPP increased 5-HT2B receptor clustering at the surface of primary cultured hippocampal neurons and prevented receptor dispersion following agonist stimulation, thus potentiating IP production and intracellular calcium mobilization in dendrites. CIPP or 5-HT2B receptor stimulation in turn dispersed NR1 clusters colocalized with 5-HT2B receptors and increased the density and maturation of dendritic spines. Collectively, our results suggest that the 5-HT2B receptor, the NMDA receptor, and CIPP may form a signaling platform by which serotonin can influence structural plasticity of excitatory glutamatergic synapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amina Benhadda
- INSERM UMR-S 1270, F75005 Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, F75005 Paris, France
- Institut du Fer à Moulin, F75005 Paris, France
| | - Emily Quentin
- INSERM UMR-S 1270, F75005 Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, F75005 Paris, France
- Institut du Fer à Moulin, F75005 Paris, France
| | - Imane Moutkine
- INSERM UMR-S 1270, F75005 Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, F75005 Paris, France
- Institut du Fer à Moulin, F75005 Paris, France
| | - Benjamin Chanrion
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, INSERM, 34094 Montpellier, France
| | - Marion Russeau
- INSERM UMR-S 1270, F75005 Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, F75005 Paris, France
- Institut du Fer à Moulin, F75005 Paris, France
| | - Philippe Marin
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, INSERM, 34094 Montpellier, France
| | - Sabine Levi
- INSERM UMR-S 1270, F75005 Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, F75005 Paris, France
- Institut du Fer à Moulin, F75005 Paris, France
| | - Luc Maroteaux
- INSERM UMR-S 1270, F75005 Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, F75005 Paris, France
- Institut du Fer à Moulin, F75005 Paris, France
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16
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Differential Involvement of ACKR3 C-Tail in β-Arrestin Recruitment, Trafficking and Internalization. Cells 2021; 10:cells10030618. [PMID: 33799570 PMCID: PMC8002179 DOI: 10.3390/cells10030618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The atypical chemokine receptor 3 (ACKR3) belongs to the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Unlike classical GPCRs, this receptor does not activate G proteins in most cell types but recruits β-arrestins upon activation. ACKR3 plays an important role in cancer and vascular diseases. As recruitment of β-arrestins is triggered by phosphorylation of the C-terminal tail of GPCRs, we studied the role of different potential phosphorylation sites within the ACKR3 C-tail to further delineate the molecular mechanism of internalization and trafficking of this GPCR. Methods: We used various bioluminescence and fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based sensors and techniques in Human Embryonic Kidney (HEK) 293T cells expressing WT or phosphorylation site mutants of ACKR3 to measure CXCL12-induced recruitment of β-arrestins and G-protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs), receptor internalization and trafficking. Results: Upon CXCL12 stimulation, ACKR3 recruits both β-arrestin 1 and 2 with equivalent kinetic profiles. We identified interactions with GRK2, 3 and 5, with GRK2 and 3 being important for β-arrestin recruitment. Upon activation, ACKR3 internalizes and recycles back to the cell membrane. We demonstrate that β-arrestin recruitment to the receptor is mainly determined by a single cluster of phosphorylated residues on the C-tail of ACKR3, and that residue T352 and in part S355 are important residues for β-arrestin1 recruitment. Phosphorylation of the C-tail appears essential for ligand-induced internalization and important for differential β-arrestin recruitment. GRK2 and 3 play a key role in receptor internalization. Moreover, ACKR3 can still internalize when β-arrestin recruitment is impaired or in the absence of β-arrestins, using alternative internalization pathways. Our data indicate that distinct residues within the C-tail of ACKR3 differentially regulate CXCL12-induced β-arrestin recruitment, ACKR3 trafficking and internalization.
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Mohammad Nezhady MA, Rivera JC, Chemtob S. Location Bias as Emerging Paradigm in GPCR Biology and Drug Discovery. iScience 2020; 23:101643. [PMID: 33103080 PMCID: PMC7569339 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2020.101643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
GPCRs are the largest receptor family that are involved in virtually all biological processes. Pharmacologically, they are highly druggable targets, as they cover more than 40% of all drugs in the market. Our knowledge of biased signaling provided insight into pharmacology vastly improving drug design to avoid unwanted effects and achieve higher efficacy and selectivity. However, yet another feature of GPCR biology is left largely unexplored, location bias. Recent developments in this field show promising avenues for evolution of new class of pharmaceuticals with greater potential for higher level of precision medicine. Further consideration and understanding of this phenomenon with deep biochemical and molecular insights would pave the road to success. In this review, we critically analyze this perspective and discuss new avenues of investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Ali Mohammad Nezhady
- Programmes en Biologie Moléculaire, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Centre de Recherche du CHU Sainte-Justine, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada
- Corresponding author
| | | | - Sylvain Chemtob
- Programmes en Biologie Moléculaire, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Centre de Recherche du CHU Sainte-Justine, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada
- Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital Research Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada
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18
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The constitutive activity of the viral-encoded G protein-coupled receptor US28 supports a complex signalling network contributing to cancer development. Biochem Soc Trans 2020; 48:1493-1504. [PMID: 32779712 PMCID: PMC7458396 DOI: 10.1042/bst20190988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 07/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
US28 is a viral G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) encoded by the human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). This receptor, expressed both during lytic replication and viral latency, is required for latency. US28 is binding to a wide variety of chemokines but also exhibits a particularly high constitutive activity robustly modulating a wide network of cellular pathways altering the host cell environment to benefit HCMV infection. Several studies suggest that US28-mediated signalling may contribute to cancer progression. In this review, we discuss the unique structural characteristics that US28 acquired through evolution that confer a robust constitutive activity to this viral receptor. We also describe the wide downstream signalling network activated by this constitutive activation of US28 and discuss how these signalling pathways may promote and support important cellular aspects of cancer.
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19
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Meng L, Chou T, Jiang S, Wang L, Zhu M, Mukhtar I, Xie B, Wang W. Characterization and expression pattern analysis of pheromone receptor-like genes in Winter Mushroom Flammulina filiformis. Arch Microbiol 2020; 202:2671-2678. [PMID: 32719947 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-020-01990-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Revised: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/18/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Pheromone receptor-like genes (PRLGs) belong to the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) family that interacts with biotic and abiotic stimulants and transmits signals to intracellular downstream pathways in eukaryotic cells. In this study, we investigated the structure and expressions patterns of PRLGs in Winter Mushroom Flammulina filiformis. Based on the alignment analysis, the structure of PRLGs was found conserved in F. filiformis strains expect few single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) sites. Six PRLGs were found at five different unlinked loci, scattered in the genomes of F. filiformis strains. These genes contain 2-5 introns; however, the introns were not found in the same relative positions regarding the encoded protein sequences in tested strains of F. filiformis. Three conserved motifs were identified in peptides structures of PRLGs, however, FfSte3.s6 contained only two types, suggests its difference in evolution and function. We have further analyzed the expression patterns of each PRLGs in different developmental stages of the fruiting body in F. filiformis by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The results exhibited expression variation of PRLGs at different developmental stages of the F. filiformis. Especially, FfSte3.s1 and FfSte3.s2 exhibited maximum expression level in mycelia stage. Other PRLGs exhibited high expression level in fruiting body stages. This study suggests that PRLGs could be vital genes involving in fruiting body development in F. filiformis. However, further studies could be performed to reveal their specific functional pathways in the fruiting body development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Meng
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018, China
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Tiansheng Chou
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
- BGI Education Center, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518083, China
| | - Siyuan Jiang
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
- BGI Education Center, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518083, China
| | - Li Wang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018, China
| | - Mengjuan Zhu
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018, China
| | - Irum Mukhtar
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Baogui Xie
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018, China.
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China.
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20
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A compendium of G-protein-coupled receptors and cyclic nucleotide regulation of adipose tissue metabolism and energy expenditure. Clin Sci (Lond) 2020; 134:473-512. [PMID: 32149342 DOI: 10.1042/cs20190579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
With the ever-increasing burden of obesity and Type 2 diabetes, it is generally acknowledged that there remains a need for developing new therapeutics. One potential mechanism to combat obesity is to raise energy expenditure via increasing the amount of uncoupled respiration from the mitochondria-rich brown and beige adipocytes. With the recent appreciation of thermogenic adipocytes in humans, much effort is being made to elucidate the signaling pathways that regulate the browning of adipose tissue. In this review, we focus on the ligand-receptor signaling pathways that influence the cyclic nucleotides, cAMP and cGMP, in adipocytes. We chose to focus on G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), guanylyl cyclase and phosphodiesterase regulation of adipocytes because they are the targets of a large proportion of all currently available therapeutics. Furthermore, there is a large overlap in their signaling pathways, as signaling events that raise cAMP or cGMP generally increase adipocyte lipolysis and cause changes that are commonly referred to as browning: increasing mitochondrial biogenesis, uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) expression and respiration.
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21
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Rehman A, Baloch NUA, Morrow JP, Pacher P, Haskó G. Targeting of G-protein coupled receptors in sepsis. Pharmacol Ther 2020; 211:107529. [PMID: 32197794 PMCID: PMC7388546 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The Third International Consensus Definitions (Sepsis-3) define sepsis as life-threatening multi-organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response to infection. Sepsis can progress to septic shock-an even more lethal condition associated with profound circulatory, cellular and metabolic abnormalities. Septic shock remains a leading cause of death in intensive care units and carries a mortality of almost 25%. Despite significant advances in our understanding of the pathobiology of sepsis, therapeutic interventions have not translated into tangible differences in the overall outcome for patients. Clinical trials of antagonists of various pro-inflammatory mediators in sepsis have been largely unsuccessful in the past. Given the diverse physiologic roles played by G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR), modulation of GPCR signaling for the treatment of sepsis has also been explored. Traditional pharmacologic approaches have mainly focused on ligands targeting the extracellular domains of GPCR. However, novel techniques aimed at modulating GPCR intracellularly through aptamers, pepducins and intrabodies have opened a fresh avenue of therapeutic possibilities. In this review, we summarize the diverse roles played by various subfamilies of GPCR in the pathogenesis of sepsis and identify potential targets for pharmacotherapy through these novel approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdul Rehman
- Department of Medicine, Rutgers-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Noor Ul-Ain Baloch
- Department of Medicine, Rutgers-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - John P Morrow
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York City, NY, United States
| | - Pál Pacher
- Laboratory of Cardiovascular Physiology and Tissue Injury, National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - György Haskó
- Department of Anesthesiology, Columbia University, New York City, NY, United States.
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22
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Lecca D, Raffaele S, Abbracchio MP, Fumagalli M. Regulation and signaling of the GPR17 receptor in oligodendroglial cells. Glia 2020; 68:1957-1967. [PMID: 32086854 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Remyelination, namely, the formation of new myelin sheaths around denuded axons, counteracts axonal degeneration and restores neuronal function. Considerable advances have been made in understanding this regenerative process that often fails in diseases like multiple sclerosis, leaving axons demyelinated and vulnerable to damage, thus contributing to disease progression. The identification of the membrane receptor GPR17 on a subset of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), which mediate remyelination in the adult central nervous system (CNS), has led to a huge amount of evidence that validated this receptor as a new attractive target for remyelinating therapies. Here, we summarize the role of GPR17 in OPC function, myelination and remyelination, describing its atypical pharmacology, its downstream signaling, and the genetic and epigenetic factors modulating its activity. We also highlight crucial insights into GPR17 pathophysiology coming from the demonstration that oligodendrocyte injury, associated with inflammation in chronic neurodegenerative conditions, is invariably characterized by abnormal and persistent GPR17 upregulation, which, in turn, is accompanied by a block of OPCs at immature premyelinating stages. Finally, we discuss the current literature in light of the potential exploitment of GPR17 as a therapeutic target to promote remyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Lecca
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefano Raffaele
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Maria P Abbracchio
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Marta Fumagalli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
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23
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Kunselman JM, Zajac AS, Weinberg ZY, Puthenveedu MA. Homologous Regulation of Mu Opioid Receptor Recycling by G βγ , Protein Kinase C, and Receptor Phosphorylation. Mol Pharmacol 2019; 96:702-710. [PMID: 31575621 PMCID: PMC6820217 DOI: 10.1124/mol.119.117267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Membrane trafficking and receptor signaling are two fundamental cellular processes that interact constantly. Although how trafficking regulates signaling is well studied, how signaling pathways regulate trafficking is less well understood. Here, we use the mu opioid receptor (MOR), the primary target for opioid analgesics, to define a signaling pathway that dynamically regulates postendocytic receptor recycling. By directly visualizing individual MOR recycling events, we show that agonist increases MOR recycling. Inhibition of G βγ, phospholipase C, or protein kinase C mimicked agonist removal, whereas activation of G βγ increased recycling even after agonist removal. Phosphorylation of serine 363 on the C-terminal tail of MOR was required and sufficient for agonist-mediated regulation of MOR recycling. Our results identify a feedback loop that regulates MOR recycling via G βγ , protein kinase C, and receptor phosphorylation. This could serve as a general model for how signaling regulates postendocytic trafficking of G protein-coupled receptors. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) localization in the endosome is being increasingly recognized as an important and distinct component of GPCR signaling and physiology. This study identifies a G protein-dependent and protein kinase C-dependent signaling pathway that dynamically regulates the endosomal localization of the mu opioid receptor, the primary target of opioid analgesics and abused drugs. This pathway could provide a mechanism to manipulate spatial encoding of opioid signaling and physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M Kunselman
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Program (J.M.K., M.A.P.) and Department of Pharmacology (J.M.K., Z.Y.W., M.A.P.), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan; and Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (A.S.Z., M.A.P.)
| | - Amanda S Zajac
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Program (J.M.K., M.A.P.) and Department of Pharmacology (J.M.K., Z.Y.W., M.A.P.), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan; and Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (A.S.Z., M.A.P.)
| | - Zara Y Weinberg
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Program (J.M.K., M.A.P.) and Department of Pharmacology (J.M.K., Z.Y.W., M.A.P.), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan; and Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (A.S.Z., M.A.P.)
| | - Manojkumar A Puthenveedu
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Program (J.M.K., M.A.P.) and Department of Pharmacology (J.M.K., Z.Y.W., M.A.P.), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan; and Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (A.S.Z., M.A.P.)
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24
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Laufer JM, Hauser MA, Kindinger I, Purvanov V, Pauli A, Legler DF. Chemokine Receptor CCR7 Triggers an Endomembrane Signaling Complex for Spatial Rac Activation. Cell Rep 2019; 29:995-1009.e6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
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25
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Tomas A, Jones B, Leech C. New Insights into Beta-Cell GLP-1 Receptor and cAMP Signaling. J Mol Biol 2019; 432:1347-1366. [PMID: 31446075 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2019.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2019] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Harnessing the translational potential of the GLP-1/GLP-1R system in pancreatic beta cells has led to the development of established GLP-1R-based therapies for the long-term preservation of beta cell function. In this review, we discuss recent advances in the current research on the GLP-1/GLP-1R system in beta cells, including the regulation of signaling by endocytic trafficking as well as the application of concepts such as signal bias, allosteric modulation, dual agonism, polymorphic receptor variants, spatial compartmentalization of cAMP signaling and new downstream signaling targets involved in the control of beta cell function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra Tomas
- Section of Cell Biology and Functional Genomics, Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, W12 0NN, UK.
| | - Ben Jones
- Section of Investigative Medicine, Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, W12 0NN, UK
| | - Colin Leech
- Department of Surgery, State University of New York, Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA
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26
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Olsen C, Memarzadeh K, Ulu A, Carr HS, Bean AJ, Frost JA. Regulation of Somatostatin Receptor 2 Trafficking by C-Tail Motifs and the Retromer. Endocrinology 2019; 160:1031-1043. [PMID: 30822353 PMCID: PMC6462214 DOI: 10.1210/en.2018-00865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The Gi-coupled somatostatin receptor 2 (SST2) is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that mediates many of somatostatin's neuroendocrine actions. Upon stimulation, SST2 is rapidly internalized and transported to early endosomes before being recycled to the plasma membrane. However, little is known about the intracellular itinerary of SST2 after it moves to the early endosomal compartment or the cytoplasmic proteins that regulate its trafficking. As postsynaptic density protein/discs large 1/zonula occludens-1 (PDZ) domain interactions often regulate the trafficking and signaling potential of GPCRs, we examined the role of the SST2 PDZ ligand and additional C-terminal residues in controlling its intracellular trafficking. We determined that SST2 can recycle to the plasma membrane via multiple pathways, including a LAMP1/Rab7-positive late endosome to the trans-Golgi network (TGN) pathway. Trafficking from the late endosome to the TGN is often regulated by the retromer complex of endosomal coat proteins, and disrupting the retromer components sorting nexins 1/2 inhibits the budding of SST2 from late endosomes. Moreover, trafficking through the late endosomal/TGN pathway is dependent on an intact PDZ ligand and C-terminal tail, as truncating either the 3 or 10 C-terminal amino acids of SST2 alters the pathway through which it recycles to the plasma membrane. Moreover, addition of these amino acids to a heterologous receptor is sufficient to redirect it from a degradation pathway to a recycling itinerary. Our results demonstrate that endosomal trafficking of SST2 is dependent on numerous regulatory mechanisms controlled by its C terminus and the retromer machinery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney Olsen
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas
- MD Anderson UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, Texas
| | - Kimiya Memarzadeh
- MD Anderson UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, Texas
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Arzu Ulu
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Heather S Carr
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Andrew J Bean
- MD Anderson UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, Texas
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Jeffrey A Frost
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas
- MD Anderson UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, Texas
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Ye R, Pi M, Nooh MM, Bahout SW, Quarles LD. Human GPRC6A Mediates Testosterone-Induced Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases and mTORC1 Signaling in Prostate Cancer Cells. Mol Pharmacol 2019; 95:563-572. [PMID: 30894404 DOI: 10.1124/mol.118.115014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 03/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptor family C group 6 member A (GPRC6A) is activated by testosterone and modulates prostate cancer progression. Most humans have a GPRC6A variant that contains a recently evolved KGKY insertion/deletion in the third intracellular loop (ICL3) (designated as GPRC6AICL3_KGKY) that replaces the ancestral KGRKLP sequence (GPRC6AICL3_RKLP) present in all other species. In vitro assays purport that human GPRC6AICL3_KGKY is retained intracellularly and lacks function. These findings contrast with ligand-dependent activation and coupling to mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling of endogenous human GPRC6AICL3_KGKY in PC-3 cells. To understand these discrepant results, we expressed mouse (mGPRC6AICL3_KGRKLP), human (hGPRC6AICL3_KGKY), and humanized mouse (mGPRC6AICL3_KGKY) GPRC6A into human embryonic kidney 293 cells. Our results demonstrate that mGPRC6AICL3_KGRKLP acts as a classic G protein-coupled receptor, which is expressed at the cell membrane and internalizes in response to ligand activation by testosterone. In contrast, hGPRC6AICL3_KGKY and humanized mouse mGPRC6AICL3_KGKY are retained intracellularly in ligand naive cells, yet exhibit β-arrestin-dependent signaling responses, mitogen-activated protein kinase [i.e., extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)], and p70S6 kinase phosphorylation in response to testosterone, indicating that hGPRC6AICL3_KGKY is functional. Indeed, testosterone stimulates time- and dose-dependent activation of ERK, protein kinase B, and mTORC1 signaling in wild-type PC-3 cells that express endogenous GPRC6AICL3_KGKY In addition, testosterone stimulates GPRC6A-dependent cell proliferation in wild-type PC-3 cells and inhibits autophagy by activating mTORC1 effectors eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E binding protein 1 and Unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1. Testosterone activation of GPRC6A has the obligate requirement for calcium in the incubation media. In contrast, in GPRC6A-deficient cells, the effect of testosterone to activate downstream signaling is abolished, indicating that human GPRC6A is required for mediating the effects of testosterone on cell proliferation and autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruisong Ye
- Departments of Medicine (R.Y., M.P., L.D.Q.) and Pharmacology (S.W.B.), University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee; and Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt (M.M.N.)
| | - Min Pi
- Departments of Medicine (R.Y., M.P., L.D.Q.) and Pharmacology (S.W.B.), University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee; and Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt (M.M.N.)
| | - Mohammed M Nooh
- Departments of Medicine (R.Y., M.P., L.D.Q.) and Pharmacology (S.W.B.), University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee; and Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt (M.M.N.)
| | - Suleiman W Bahout
- Departments of Medicine (R.Y., M.P., L.D.Q.) and Pharmacology (S.W.B.), University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee; and Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt (M.M.N.)
| | - L Darryl Quarles
- Departments of Medicine (R.Y., M.P., L.D.Q.) and Pharmacology (S.W.B.), University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee; and Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt (M.M.N.)
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Endothelin-converting enzyme-1 regulates glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor signalling and resensitisation. Biochem J 2019; 476:513-533. [PMID: 30626614 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20180853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Revised: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Following nutrient ingestion, glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) is secreted from intestinal L-cells and mediates anti-diabetic effects, most notably stimulating glucose-dependent insulin release from pancreatic β-cells but also inhibiting glucagon release, promoting satiety and weight reduction and potentially enhancing or preserving β-cell mass. These effects are mediated by the GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R), which is a therapeutic target in type 2 diabetes. Although agonism at the GLP-1R has been well studied, desensitisation and resensitisation are perhaps less well explored. An understanding of these events is important, particularly in the design and use of novel receptor ligands. Here, using either HEK293 cells expressing the recombinant human GLP-1R or the pancreatic β-cell line, INS-1E with endogenous expressesion of the GLP-1R, we demonstrate GLP-1R desensitisation and subsequent resensitisation following removal of extracellular GLP-1 7-36 amide. Resensitisation is dependent on receptor internalisation, endosomal acidification and receptor recycling. Resensitisation is also regulated by endothelin-converting enzyme-1 (ECE-1) activity, most likely through proteolysis of GLP-1 in endosomes and the facilitation of GLP-1R dephosphorylation and recycling. Inhibition of ECE-1 activity also increases GLP-1-induced activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and generation of cAMP, suggesting processes dependent upon the lifetime of the internalised ligand-receptor complex.
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Rahman AA, Morrison BE. Contributions of VPS35 Mutations to Parkinson's Disease. Neuroscience 2019; 401:1-10. [PMID: 30660673 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's Disease (PD) is a multi-system neurodegenerative disease where approximately 90% of cases are idiopathic. The remaining 10% of the cases can be traced to a genetic origin and research has largely focused on these associated genes to gain a better understanding of the molecular and cellular pathogenesis for PD. The gene encoding vacuolar protein sorting protein 35 (VPS35) has been definitively linked to late onset familial PD following the identification of a point mutation (D620N) as the causal agent in a Swiss family. Since its discovery, numerous studies have been undertaken to characterize the role of VPS35 in cellular processes and efforts have been directed toward understanding the perturbations caused by the D620N mutation. In this review, we examine what is currently known about VPS35, which has pleiotropic effects, as well as proposed mechanisms of pathogenesis by the D620N mutation. A brief survey of other VPS35 polymorphisms is also provided. Lastly, model systems that are being utilized for these investigations and possible directions for future research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abir A Rahman
- Department of Biological Sciences, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725, USA; Biomolecular Sciences Ph.D. Program, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725, USA
| | - Brad E Morrison
- Department of Biological Sciences, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725, USA; Biomolecular Sciences Ph.D. Program, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725, USA.
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Abstract
The trillions of synaptic connections within the human brain are shaped by experience and neuronal activity, both of which underlie synaptic plasticity and ultimately learning and memory. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) play key roles in synaptic plasticity by strengthening or weakening synapses and/or shaping dendritic spines. While most studies of synaptic plasticity have focused on cell surface receptors and their downstream signaling partners, emerging data point to a critical new role for the very same receptors to signal from inside the cell. Intracellular receptors have been localized to the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosome, and mitochondria. From these intracellular positions, such receptors may couple to different signaling systems, display unique desensitization patterns, and/or show distinct patterns of subcellular distribution. Intracellular GPCRs can be activated at the cell surface, endocytosed, and transported to an intracellular site or simply activated in situ by de novo ligand synthesis, diffusion of permeable ligands, or active transport of non-permeable ligands. Current findings reinforce the notion that intracellular GPCRs play a dynamic role in synaptic plasticity and learning and memory. As new intracellular GPCR roles are defined, the need to selectively tailor agonists and/or antagonists to both intracellular and cell surface receptors may lead to the development of more effective therapeutic tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuh-Jiin I. Jong
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Steven K. Harmon
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Karen L. O’Malley
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
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31
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Mechanisms of signalling and biased agonism in G protein-coupled receptors. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2018; 19:638-653. [DOI: 10.1038/s41580-018-0049-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 323] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Priyadarshini M, Kotlo KU, Dudeja PK, Layden BT. Role of Short Chain Fatty Acid Receptors in Intestinal Physiology and Pathophysiology. Compr Physiol 2018; 8:1091-1115. [PMID: 29978895 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c170050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Nutrient sensing is a mechanism for organisms to sense their environment. In larger animals, including humans, the intestinal tract is a major site of nutrient sensing for the body, not surprisingly, as this is the central location where nutrients are absorbed. In the gut, bacterial fermentation results in generation of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), a class of nutrients, which are sensed by specific membrane bound receptors, FFA2, FFA3, GPR109a, and Olfr78. These receptors are expressed uniquely throughout the gut and signal through distinct mechanisms. To date, the emerging data suggests a role of these receptors in normal and pathological conditions. The overall function of these receptors is to regulate aspects of intestinal motility, hormone secretion, maintenance of the epithelial barrier, and immune cell function. Besides in intestinal health, a prominent role of these receptors has emerged in modulation of inflammatory and immune responses during pathological conditions. Moreover, these receptors are being revealed to interact with the gut microbiota. This review article updates the current body of knowledge on SCFA sensing receptors in the gut and their roles in intestinal health and disease as well as in whole body energy homeostasis. © 2017 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 8:1091-1115, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Medha Priyadarshini
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Kumar U Kotlo
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Pradeep K Dudeja
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois, USA.,Jesse Brown Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Brian T Layden
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois, USA.,Jesse Brown Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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Nedi T, White PJ, Coupar IM, Irving HR. Effect of the 5-HT 4 receptor agonist tegaserod on the expression of GRK2 and GRK6 in the rat gastrointestinal tract. BMC Res Notes 2018; 11:362. [PMID: 29884229 PMCID: PMC5994065 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-018-3495-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Tegaserod is a 5-hydroxytryptamine type 4 (5-HT4) receptor agonist, formerly used in treating constipation predominant irritable bowel syndrome, which desensitizes 5-HT4 receptors in rat oesophagus and colon in vitro. Desensitization of 5-HT4 receptors is regulated by G-protein coupled receptor kinases. This study was designed to assess the effect of 5-HT4 receptor activation on the expression of GRK2 and GRK6 in the rat oesophagus and distal colon by acute administration of tegaserod. Results Rats were treated with a single dose of tegaserod (5 mg/kg) and tissue samples of the oesophagus and distal colon were prepared and level of GRK2 and GRK6 protein expression was determined using western blotting. The immunodensity of GRK2 and GRK6 was normalized against the loading control β-actin and compared with control animals. Acute administration of tegaserod for 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 8 h did not change significantly the immunodensity of GRK2 or GRK6 in the oesophagus or GRK2 in the distal colon when compared with control animals. This may indicate that the basal level of GRK2 and GRK6 expression is sufficient to regulate the desensitization of 5-HT4 receptors in acute drug treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teshome Nedi
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.,School of Pharmacy, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, PO Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Paul J White
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Ian M Coupar
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Helen R Irving
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia. .,La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, PO Box 199, Bendigo, VIC, 3552, Australia.
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Abstract
Opioids are the most commonly used and effective analgesic treatments for severe pain, but they have recently come under scrutiny owing to epidemic levels of abuse and overdose. These compounds act on the endogenous opioid system, which comprises four G protein-coupled receptors (mu, delta, kappa, and nociceptin) and four major peptide families (β-endorphin, enkephalins, dynorphins, and nociceptin/orphanin FQ). In this review, we first describe the functional organization and pharmacology of the endogenous opioid system. We then summarize current knowledge on the signaling mechanisms by which opioids regulate neuronal function and neurotransmission. Finally, we discuss the loci of opioid analgesic action along peripheral and central pain pathways, emphasizing the pain-relieving properties of opioids against the affective dimension of the pain experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory Corder
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California 94304, USA; .,Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California 94304, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California 94304, USA.,Stanford Neurosciences Institute, Palo Alto, California 94304, USA
| | - Daniel C Castro
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, USA;
| | - Michael R Bruchas
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, USA; .,Division of Basic Research, Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, USA.,Washington University Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, USA
| | - Grégory Scherrer
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California 94304, USA; .,Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California 94304, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California 94304, USA.,Stanford Neurosciences Institute, Palo Alto, California 94304, USA.,New York Stem Cell Foundation - Robertson Investigator, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California 94304, USA
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35
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Nooh MM, Mancarella S, Bahouth SW. Novel Paradigms Governing β1-Adrenergic Receptor Trafficking in Primary Adult Rat Cardiac Myocytes. Mol Pharmacol 2018; 94:862-875. [PMID: 29848777 DOI: 10.1124/mol.118.112045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The β1-adrenergic receptor (β1-AR) is a major cardiac G protein-coupled receptor, which mediates cardiac actions of catecholamines and is involved in genesis and treatment of numerous cardiovascular disorders. In mammalian cells, catecholamines induce the internalization of the β1-AR into endosomes and their removal promotes the recycling of the endosomal β1-AR back to the plasma membrane; however, whether these redistributive processes occur in terminally differentiated cells is unknown. Compartmentalization of the β1-AR in response to β-agonists and antagonists was determined by confocal microscopy in primary adult rat ventricular myocytes (ARVMs), which are terminally differentiated myocytes with unique structures such as transverse tubules (T-tubules) and contractile sarcomeres. In unstimulated ARVMs, the fluorescently labeled β1-AR was expressed on the external membrane (the sarcolemma) of cardiomyocytes. Exposing ARVMs to isoproterenol redistributed surface β1-ARs into small (∼225-250 nm) regularly spaced internal punctate structures that overlapped with puncta stained by Di-8 ANEPPS, a membrane-impermeant T-tubule-specific dye. Replacing the β-agonist with the β-blocker alprenolol, induced the translocation of the wild-type β1-AR from these punctate structures back to the plasma membrane. This step was dependent on two barcodes, namely, the type-1 PDZ binding motif and serine at position 312 of the β1-AR, which is phosphorylated by a pool of cAMP-dependent protein kinases anchored at the type-1 PDZ of the β1-AR. These data show that redistribution of the β1-AR in ARVMs from internal structures back to the plasma membrane was mediated by a novel sorting mechanism, which might explain unique aspects of cardiac β1-AR signaling under normal or pathologic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed M Nooh
- Departments of Pharmacology (M.M.N., S.W.B.) and Physiology (S.M.), The University of Tennessee Health Sciences Center, Memphis, Tennessee; and Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt (M.M.N.)
| | - Salvatore Mancarella
- Departments of Pharmacology (M.M.N., S.W.B.) and Physiology (S.M.), The University of Tennessee Health Sciences Center, Memphis, Tennessee; and Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt (M.M.N.)
| | - Suleiman W Bahouth
- Departments of Pharmacology (M.M.N., S.W.B.) and Physiology (S.M.), The University of Tennessee Health Sciences Center, Memphis, Tennessee; and Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt (M.M.N.)
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36
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Gupta MK, Mohan ML, Naga Prasad SV. G Protein-Coupled Receptor Resensitization Paradigms. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 339:63-91. [PMID: 29776605 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2018.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cellular responses to extracellular milieu/environment are driven by cell surface receptors that transmit the signal into the cells resulting in a synchronized and measured response. The ability to provide such exquisite responses to changes in external environment is mediated by the tight and yet, deliberate regulation of cell surface receptor function. In this regard, the seven transmembrane G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of cell surface receptors that regulate responses like cardiac contractility, vision, and olfaction including platelet activation. GPCRs regulate these plethora of events through GPCR-activation, -desensitization, and -resensitization. External stimuli (ligands or agonists) activate GPCR initiating downstream signals. The activated GPCR undergoes inactivation or desensitization by phosphorylation and binding of β-arrestin resulting in diminution of downstream signals. The desensitized GPCRs are internalized into endosomes, wherein they undergo dephosphorylation or resensitization by protein phosphatase to be recycled back to the cell membrane as naïve GPCR ready for the next wave of stimuli. Despite the knowledge that activation, desensitization, and resensitization shoulder an equal role in maintaining GPCR function, major advances have been made in understanding activation and desensitization compared to resensitization. However, increasing evidence shows that resensitization is exquisitely regulated process, thereby contributing to the dynamic regulation of GPCR function. In recognition of these observations, in this chapter we discuss the key advances on the mechanistic underpinning that drive and regulate GPCR function with a focus on resensitization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manveen K Gupta
- Department of Molecular Cardiology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Maradumane L Mohan
- Department of Molecular Cardiology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Sathyamangla V Naga Prasad
- Department of Molecular Cardiology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States.
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Jones B, Bloom SR, Buenaventura T, Tomas A, Rutter GA. Control of insulin secretion by GLP-1. Peptides 2018; 100:75-84. [PMID: 29412835 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2017.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2017] [Revised: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Stimulation of insulin secretion by glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and other gut-derived peptides is central to the incretin response to ingesting nutriments. Analogues of GLP-1, and inhibitors of its breakdown, have found widespread clinical use for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2D) and obesity. The release of these peptides underlies the improvements in glycaemic control and disease remission after bariatric surgery. Given therapeutically, GLP-1 analogues can lead to side effects including nausea, which limit dosage. Greater understanding of the interactions between the GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) and both the endogenous and artificial ligands therefore holds promise to provide more efficacious compounds. Here, we discuss recent findings concerning the signalling and trafficking of the GLP-1R in pancreatic beta cells. Leveraging "bias" at the receptor towards cAMP generation versus the recruitment of β-arrestins and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2) activation may allow the development of new analogues with significantly improved clinical efficacy. We describe how, unexpectedly, relatively low-affinity agonists, which prompt less receptor internalisation than the parent compound, provoke greater insulin secretion and consequent improvements in glycaemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Jones
- Section of Investigative Medicine, Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK
| | - Stephen R Bloom
- Section of Investigative Medicine, Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK
| | - Teresa Buenaventura
- Section of Cell Biology and Functional Genomics & Imperial Consortium for Islet Biology and Diabetes, Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK
| | - Alejandra Tomas
- Section of Cell Biology and Functional Genomics & Imperial Consortium for Islet Biology and Diabetes, Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK.
| | - Guy A Rutter
- Section of Cell Biology and Functional Genomics & Imperial Consortium for Islet Biology and Diabetes, Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK.
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Moore R, Pujol MG, Zhu Z, Smythe E. Interplay of Endocytosis and Growth Factor Receptor Signalling. ENDOCYTOSIS AND SIGNALING 2018; 57:181-202. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-96704-2_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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39
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Imam MZ, Kuo A, Ghassabian S, Smith MT. Progress in understanding mechanisms of opioid-induced gastrointestinal adverse effects and respiratory depression. Neuropharmacology 2017; 131:238-255. [PMID: 29273520 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.12.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Revised: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Opioids evoke analgesia through activation of opioid receptors (predominantly the μ opioid receptor) in the central nervous system. Opioid receptors are abundant in multiple regions of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system including enteric neurons. Opioid-related adverse effects such as constipation, nausea, and vomiting pose challenges for compliance and continuation of the therapy for chronic pain management. In the post-operative setting opioid-induced depression of respiration can be fatal. These critical limitations warrant a better understanding of their underpinning cellular and molecular mechanisms to inform the design of novel opioid analgesic molecules that are devoid of these unwanted side-effects. Research efforts on opioid receptor signalling in the past decade suggest that differential signalling pathways and downstream molecules preferentially mediate distinct pharmacological effects. Additionally, interaction among opioid receptors and, between opioid receptor and non-opioid receptors to form signalling complexes shows that opioid-induced receptor signalling is potentially more complicated than previously thought. This complexity provides an opportunity to identify and probe relationships between selective signalling pathway specificity and in vivo production of opioid-related adverse effects. In this review, we focus on current knowledge of the mechanisms thought to transduce opioid-induced gastrointestinal adverse effects (constipation, nausea, vomiting) and respiratory depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Zafar Imam
- Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; UQ Centre for Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Andy Kuo
- UQ Centre for Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Sussan Ghassabian
- UQ Centre for Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Maree T Smith
- UQ Centre for Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
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40
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Jong YJI, Harmon SK, O'Malley KL. GPCR signalling from within the cell. Br J Pharmacol 2017; 175:4026-4035. [PMID: 28872669 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Revised: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditionally, signal transduction from GPCRs is thought to emanate from the cell surface where receptor interactions with external stimuli can be transformed into a broad range of cellular responses. However, emergent data show that numerous GPCRs are also associated with various intracellular membranes where they may couple to different signalling systems, display unique desensitization patterns and/or exhibit distinct patterns of subcellular distribution. Although many GPCRs can be activated at the cell surface and subsequently endocytosed and transported to a unique intracellular site, other intracellular GPCRs can be activated in situ either via de novo ligand synthesis, diffusion of permeable ligands or active transport of nonpermeable ligands. Current findings reinforce the notion that intracellular GPCRs play a dynamic role in various biological functions including learning and memory, contractility and angiogenesis. As new intracellular GPCR roles are defined, the need to selectively tailor agonists and/or antagonists to both intracellular and cell surface receptors may lead to the development of more effective therapeutic tools. LINKED ARTICLES This article is part of a themed section on Molecular Pharmacology of GPCRs. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v175.21/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuh-Jiin I Jong
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Steven K Harmon
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Karen L O'Malley
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
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Gao W, Shi P, Chen X, Zhang L, Liu J, Fan X, Luo X. Clathrin-mediated integrin αIIbβ3 trafficking controls platelet spreading. Platelets 2017; 29:610-621. [PMID: 28961039 DOI: 10.1080/09537104.2017.1353682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Dynamic endocytic and exocytic trafficking of integrins is an important mechanism for cell migration, invasion, and cytokinesis. Endocytosis of integrin can be classified as clathrin dependent and clathrin independent manners. And rapid delivery of endocytic integrins back to the plasma membrane is key intracellular signals and is indispensable for cell movement. Integrin αIIbβ3 plays a critical role in thrombosis and hemostasis. Although previous studies have demonstrated that internalization of fibrinogen-bound αIIbβ3 may regulate platelet activation, the roles of endocytic and exocytic trafficking of integrin αIIbβ3 in platelet activation are unclear. In this study, we found that a selective inhibitor of clathrin-mediated endocytosis pitstop 2 inhibited human platelet spreading on immobilized fibrinogen (Fg). Mechanism studies revealed that pitstop 2 did not block the endocytosis of αIIbβ3 and Fg uptake, but inhibit the recycling of αIIbβ3 to plasma membrane during platelet or CHO cells bearing αIIbβ3 spreading on immobilized Fg. And pitstop 2 enhanced the association of αIIbβ3 with clathrin, and AP2 indicated that pitstop 2 inhibit platelet activation is probably due to disturbance of the dynamic dissociation of αIIbβ3 from clathrin and AP2. Further study demonstrated that Src/PLC/PKC was the key pathway to trigger the endocytosis of αIIbβ3 during platelet activation. Pitstop 2 also inhibited platelet aggregation and secretion. Our findings suggest integrin αIIbβ3 trafficking is clathrin dependent and plays a critical role in platelet spreading, and pitstop 2 may serve as an effective tool to address clathrin-mediated trafficking in platelets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Gao
- a Department of Cardiology , Huashan Hospital, Fudan University , Shanghai , China
| | - Panlai Shi
- b Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Inflammation , Shanghai Jiao Tong University of Medscine , Shanghai , China
| | - Xue Chen
- b Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Inflammation , Shanghai Jiao Tong University of Medscine , Shanghai , China
| | - Lin Zhang
- b Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Inflammation , Shanghai Jiao Tong University of Medscine , Shanghai , China
| | - Junling Liu
- b Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Inflammation , Shanghai Jiao Tong University of Medscine , Shanghai , China
| | - Xuemei Fan
- b Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment and Inflammation , Shanghai Jiao Tong University of Medscine , Shanghai , China
| | - Xinping Luo
- a Department of Cardiology , Huashan Hospital, Fudan University , Shanghai , China
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Ranjan R, Dwivedi H, Baidya M, Kumar M, Shukla AK. Novel Structural Insights into GPCR-β-Arrestin Interaction and Signaling. Trends Cell Biol 2017; 27:851-862. [PMID: 28651823 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2017.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Revised: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are major signal recognition and transmission units in the plasma membrane. The interaction of activated and phosphorylated GPCRs with the multifunctional adaptor proteins β-arrestins (βarrs) is crucial for regulation of their signaling and functional outcomes. Over the past few years, a range of structural, biochemical, and cellular studies have revealed novel insights into GPCR-βarr interaction and signaling. Some of these findings have come as a surprise and therefore have the potential to significantly refine the conceptual framework of the GPCR-βarr system. Here we discuss these recent advances with particular emphasis on biphasic GPCR-βarr interaction, the formation of GPCR-G-protein-βarr supercomplexes, and receptor-specific conformational signatures in βarrs. We also underline the emerging research areas that are likely to be at the center stage of investigations in the coming years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravi Ranjan
- Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208016, India
| | - Hemlata Dwivedi
- Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208016, India
| | - Mithu Baidya
- Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208016, India
| | - Mohit Kumar
- Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208016, India
| | - Arun K Shukla
- Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208016, India.
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