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Elson DJ, Kolluri SK. Tumor-Suppressive Functions of the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AhR) and AhR as a Therapeutic Target in Cancer. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:biology12040526. [PMID: 37106727 PMCID: PMC10135996 DOI: 10.3390/biology12040526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 03/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor involved in regulating a wide range of biological responses. A diverse array of xenobiotics and endogenous small molecules bind to the receptor and drive unique phenotypic responses. Due in part to its role in mediating toxic responses to environmental pollutants, AhR activation has not been traditionally viewed as a viable therapeutic approach. Nonetheless, the expression and activation of AhR can inhibit the proliferation, migration, and survival of cancer cells, and many clinically approved drugs transcriptionally activate AhR. Identification of novel select modulators of AhR-regulated transcription that promote tumor suppression is an active area of investigation. The development of AhR-targeted anticancer agents requires a thorough understanding of the molecular mechanisms driving tumor suppression. Here, we summarized the tumor-suppressive mechanisms regulated by AhR with an emphasis on the endogenous functions of the receptor in opposing carcinogenesis. In multiple different cancer models, the deletion of AhR promotes increased tumorigenesis, but a precise understanding of the molecular cues and the genetic targets of AhR involved in this process is lacking. The intent of this review was to synthesize the evidence supporting AhR-dependent tumor suppression and distill insights for development of AhR-targeted cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J. Elson
- Cancer Research Laboratory, Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Siva K. Kolluri
- Cancer Research Laboratory, Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
- Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
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2
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Sondermann NC, Faßbender S, Hartung F, Hätälä AM, Rolfes KM, Vogel CFA, Haarmann-Stemmann T. Functions of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) beyond the canonical AHR/ARNT signaling pathway. Biochem Pharmacol 2023; 208:115371. [PMID: 36528068 PMCID: PMC9884176 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2022.115371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is a ligand-dependent transcription factor regulating adaptive and maladaptive responses toward exogenous and endogenous signals. Research from various biomedical disciplines has provided compelling evidence that the AHR is critically involved in the pathogenesis of a variety of diseases and disorders, including autoimmunity, inflammatory diseases, endocrine disruption, premature aging and cancer. Accordingly, AHR is considered an attractive target for the development of novel preventive and therapeutic measures. However, the ligand-based targeting of AHR is considerably complicated by the fact that the receptor does not always follow the beaten track, i.e. the canonical AHR/ARNT signaling pathway. Instead, AHR might team up with other transcription factors and signaling molecules to shape gene expression patterns and associated physiological or pathophysiological functions in a ligand-, cell- and micromilieu-dependent manner. Herein, we provide an overview about some of the most important non-canonical functions of AHR, including crosstalk with major signaling pathways involved in controlling cell fate and function, immune responses, adaptation to low oxygen levels and oxidative stress, ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. Further research on these diverse and exciting yet often ambivalent facets of AHR biology is urgently needed in order to exploit the full potential of AHR modulation for disease prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie C Sondermann
- IUF - Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Sonja Faßbender
- IUF - Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Frederick Hartung
- IUF - Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Anna M Hätälä
- IUF - Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Katharina M Rolfes
- IUF - Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Christoph F A Vogel
- Department of Environmental Toxicology and Center for Health and the Environment, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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3
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TDP-43 condensates and lipid droplets regulate the reactivity of microglia and regeneration after traumatic brain injury. Nat Neurosci 2022; 25:1608-1625. [PMID: 36424432 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-022-01199-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Decreasing the activation of pathology-activated microglia is crucial to prevent chronic inflammation and tissue scarring. In this study, we used a stab wound injury model in zebrafish and identified an injury-induced microglial state characterized by the accumulation of lipid droplets and TAR DNA-binding protein of 43 kDa (TDP-43)+ condensates. Granulin-mediated clearance of both lipid droplets and TDP-43+ condensates was necessary and sufficient to promote the return of microglia back to the basal state and achieve scarless regeneration. Moreover, in postmortem cortical brain tissues from patients with traumatic brain injury, the extent of microglial activation correlated with the accumulation of lipid droplets and TDP-43+ condensates. Together, our results reveal a mechanism required for restoring microglia to a nonactivated state after injury, which has potential for new therapeutic applications in humans.
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4
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Becker T, Becker CG. Regenerative neurogenesis: the integration of developmental, physiological and immune signals. Development 2022; 149:275248. [PMID: 35502778 PMCID: PMC9124576 DOI: 10.1242/dev.199907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
In fishes and salamanders, but not mammals, neural stem cells switch back to neurogenesis after injury. The signalling environment of neural stem cells is strongly altered by the presence of damaged cells and an influx of immune, as well as other, cells. Here, we summarise our recently expanded knowledge of developmental, physiological and immune signals that act on neural stem cells in the zebrafish central nervous system to directly, or indirectly, influence their neurogenic state. These signals act on several intracellular pathways, which leads to changes in chromatin accessibility and gene expression, ultimately resulting in regenerative neurogenesis. Translational approaches in non-regenerating mammals indicate that central nervous system stem cells can be reprogrammed for neurogenesis. Understanding signalling mechanisms in naturally regenerating species show the path to experimentally promoting neurogenesis in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Becker
- Center for Regenerative Therapies at the TU Dresden, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany.,Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh Medical School, Biomedical Science, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, Scotland
| | - Catherina G Becker
- Center for Regenerative Therapies at the TU Dresden, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany.,Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh Medical School, Biomedical Science, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, Scotland
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5
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Rejano-Gordillo C, Ordiales-Talavero A, Nacarino-Palma A, Merino JM, González-Rico FJ, Fernández-Salguero PM. Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor: From Homeostasis to Tumor Progression. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:884004. [PMID: 35465323 PMCID: PMC9022225 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.884004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Transcription factor aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) has emerged as one of the main regulators involved both in different homeostatic cell functions and tumor progression. Being a member of the family of basic-helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcriptional regulators, this intracellular receptor has become a key member in differentiation, pluripotency, chromatin dynamics and cell reprogramming processes, with plenty of new targets identified in the last decade. Besides this role in tissue homeostasis, one enthralling feature of AHR is its capacity of acting as an oncogene or tumor suppressor depending on the specific organ, tissue and cell type. Together with its well-known modulation of cell adhesion and migration in a cell-type specific manner in epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), this duality has also contributed to the arise of its clinical interest, highlighting a new potential as therapeutic tool, diagnosis and prognosis marker. Therefore, a deregulation of AHR-controlled pathways may have a causal role in contributing to physiological and homeostatic failures, tumor progression and dissemination. With that firmly in mind, this review will address the remarkable capability of AHR to exert a different function influenced by the phenotype of the target cell and its potential consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Rejano-Gordillo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - Ana Ordiales-Talavero
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - Ana Nacarino-Palma
- Chronic Diseases Research Centre (CEDOC), Rua Do Instituto Bacteriológico, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Jaime M. Merino
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - Francisco J. González-Rico
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
- *Correspondence: Francisco J. González-Rico, ; Pedro M. Fernández-Salguero,
| | - Pedro M. Fernández-Salguero
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
- *Correspondence: Francisco J. González-Rico, ; Pedro M. Fernández-Salguero,
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Sanchez-Gonzalez R, Koupourtidou C, Lepko T, Zambusi A, Novoselc KT, Durovic T, Aschenbroich S, Schwarz V, Breunig CT, Straka H, Huttner HB, Irmler M, Beckers J, Wurst W, Zwergal A, Schauer T, Straub T, Czopka T, Trümbach D, Götz M, Stricker SH, Ninkovic J. Innate Immune Pathways Promote Oligodendrocyte Progenitor Cell Recruitment to the Injury Site in Adult Zebrafish Brain. Cells 2022; 11:cells11030520. [PMID: 35159329 PMCID: PMC8834209 DOI: 10.3390/cells11030520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The oligodendrocyte progenitors (OPCs) are at the front of the glial reaction to the traumatic brain injury. However, regulatory pathways steering the OPC reaction as well as the role of reactive OPCs remain largely unknown. Here, we compared a long-lasting, exacerbated reaction of OPCs to the adult zebrafish brain injury with a timely restricted OPC activation to identify the specific molecular mechanisms regulating OPC reactivity and their contribution to regeneration. We demonstrated that the influx of the cerebrospinal fluid into the brain parenchyma after injury simultaneously activates the toll-like receptor 2 (Tlr2) and the chemokine receptor 3 (Cxcr3) innate immunity pathways, leading to increased OPC proliferation and thereby exacerbated glial reactivity. These pathways were critical for long-lasting OPC accumulation even after the ablation of microglia and infiltrating monocytes. Importantly, interference with the Tlr1/2 and Cxcr3 pathways after injury alleviated reactive gliosis, increased new neuron recruitment, and improved tissue restoration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosario Sanchez-Gonzalez
- Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (R.S.-G.); (C.K.); (T.L.); (A.Z.); (K.T.N.); (T.D.); (S.A.); (V.S.); (M.G.)
- Department Biology II, University of Munich, 80539 München, Germany;
| | - Christina Koupourtidou
- Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (R.S.-G.); (C.K.); (T.L.); (A.Z.); (K.T.N.); (T.D.); (S.A.); (V.S.); (M.G.)
- Biomedical Center (BMC), Division of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 80539 München, Germany
- Graduate School Systemic Neurosciences, LMU, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Tjasa Lepko
- Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (R.S.-G.); (C.K.); (T.L.); (A.Z.); (K.T.N.); (T.D.); (S.A.); (V.S.); (M.G.)
- Biomedical Center (BMC), Division of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 80539 München, Germany
- Graduate School Systemic Neurosciences, LMU, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Alessandro Zambusi
- Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (R.S.-G.); (C.K.); (T.L.); (A.Z.); (K.T.N.); (T.D.); (S.A.); (V.S.); (M.G.)
- Biomedical Center (BMC), Division of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 80539 München, Germany
- Graduate School Systemic Neurosciences, LMU, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Klara Tereza Novoselc
- Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (R.S.-G.); (C.K.); (T.L.); (A.Z.); (K.T.N.); (T.D.); (S.A.); (V.S.); (M.G.)
- Biomedical Center (BMC), Division of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 80539 München, Germany
- Graduate School Systemic Neurosciences, LMU, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Tamara Durovic
- Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (R.S.-G.); (C.K.); (T.L.); (A.Z.); (K.T.N.); (T.D.); (S.A.); (V.S.); (M.G.)
- Biomedical Center (BMC), Division of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 80539 München, Germany
- Graduate School Systemic Neurosciences, LMU, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Sven Aschenbroich
- Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (R.S.-G.); (C.K.); (T.L.); (A.Z.); (K.T.N.); (T.D.); (S.A.); (V.S.); (M.G.)
- Biomedical Center (BMC), Division of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 80539 München, Germany
- Graduate School Systemic Neurosciences, LMU, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Veronika Schwarz
- Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (R.S.-G.); (C.K.); (T.L.); (A.Z.); (K.T.N.); (T.D.); (S.A.); (V.S.); (M.G.)
- Biomedical Center (BMC), Division of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 80539 München, Germany
- Graduate School Systemic Neurosciences, LMU, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Christopher T. Breunig
- Reprogramming and Regeneration, Biomedical Center (BMC), Physiological Genomics, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 80539 München, Germany; (C.T.B.); (S.H.S.)
- Epigenetic Engineering, Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany
| | - Hans Straka
- Department Biology II, University of Munich, 80539 München, Germany;
| | - Hagen B. Huttner
- Department of Neurology, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Klinikstrasse 33, 35392 Giessen, Germany;
| | - Martin Irmler
- Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (M.I.); (J.B.)
| | - Johannes Beckers
- Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (M.I.); (J.B.)
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD e.V.), 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
- Chair of Experimental Genetics, School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University Munich, 80333 München, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Wurst
- Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (W.W.); (D.T.)
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology SYNERGY, LMU, 80539 Munich, Germany
- Chair of Developmental Genetics c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University Munich, 80333 München, Germany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Site Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Andreas Zwergal
- Department of Neurology, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Campus Grosshadern, 81377 Munich, Germany;
| | - Tamas Schauer
- Biomedical Center (BMC), Bioinformatic Core Facility, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 80539 München, Germany; (T.S.); (T.S.)
| | - Tobias Straub
- Biomedical Center (BMC), Bioinformatic Core Facility, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 80539 München, Germany; (T.S.); (T.S.)
| | - Tim Czopka
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9YL, UK;
| | - Dietrich Trümbach
- Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (W.W.); (D.T.)
| | - Magdalena Götz
- Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (R.S.-G.); (C.K.); (T.L.); (A.Z.); (K.T.N.); (T.D.); (S.A.); (V.S.); (M.G.)
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology SYNERGY, LMU, 80539 Munich, Germany
- Biomedical Center (BMC), Division of Physiological Genomics, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 80539 München, Germany
| | - Stefan H. Stricker
- Reprogramming and Regeneration, Biomedical Center (BMC), Physiological Genomics, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 80539 München, Germany; (C.T.B.); (S.H.S.)
- Epigenetic Engineering, Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany
| | - Jovica Ninkovic
- Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (R.S.-G.); (C.K.); (T.L.); (A.Z.); (K.T.N.); (T.D.); (S.A.); (V.S.); (M.G.)
- Biomedical Center (BMC), Division of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 80539 München, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology SYNERGY, LMU, 80539 Munich, Germany
- Correspondence:
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Siddiqui T, Bhattarai P, Popova S, Cosacak MI, Sariya S, Zhang Y, Mayeux R, Tosto G, Kizil C. KYNA/Ahr Signaling Suppresses Neural Stem Cell Plasticity and Neurogenesis in Adult Zebrafish Model of Alzheimer's Disease. Cells 2021; 10:2748. [PMID: 34685728 PMCID: PMC8534484 DOI: 10.3390/cells10102748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurogenesis decreases in Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients, suggesting that restoring the normal neurogenic response could be a disease modifying intervention. To study the mechanisms of pathology-induced neuro-regeneration in vertebrate brains, zebrafish is an excellent model due to its extensive neural regeneration capacity. Here, we report that Kynurenic acid (KYNA), a metabolite of the amino acid tryptophan, negatively regulates neural stem cell (NSC) plasticity in adult zebrafish brain through its receptor, aryl hydrocarbon receptor 2 (Ahr2). The production of KYNA is suppressed after amyloid-toxicity through reduction of the levels of Kynurenine amino transferase 2 (KAT2), the key enzyme producing KYNA. NSC proliferation is enhanced by an antagonist for Ahr2 and is reduced with Ahr2 agonists or KYNA. A subset of Ahr2-expressing zebrafish NSCs do not express other regulatory receptors such as il4r or ngfra, indicating that ahr2-positive NSCs constitute a new subset of neural progenitors that are responsive to amyloid-toxicity. By performing transcriptome-wide association studies (TWAS) in three late onset Alzheimer disease (LOAD) brain autopsy cohorts, we also found that several genes that are components of KYNA metabolism or AHR signaling are differentially expressed in LOAD, suggesting a strong link between KYNA/Ahr2 signaling axis to neurogenesis in LOAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tohid Siddiqui
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) within Helmholtz Association, Tatzberg 41, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (T.S.); (P.B.); (S.P.); (M.I.C.)
| | - Prabesh Bhattarai
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) within Helmholtz Association, Tatzberg 41, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (T.S.); (P.B.); (S.P.); (M.I.C.)
| | - Stanislava Popova
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) within Helmholtz Association, Tatzberg 41, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (T.S.); (P.B.); (S.P.); (M.I.C.)
| | - Mehmet Ilyas Cosacak
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) within Helmholtz Association, Tatzberg 41, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (T.S.); (P.B.); (S.P.); (M.I.C.)
| | - Sanjeev Sariya
- The Department of Neurology, The Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, 630 West 168th Street, New York, NY 10032, USA; (S.S.); (R.M.); (G.T.)
| | - Yixin Zhang
- B-CUBE, Center for Molecular Bioengineering, TU Dresden, Tatzberg 41, 01307 Dresden, Germany;
| | - Richard Mayeux
- The Department of Neurology, The Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, 630 West 168th Street, New York, NY 10032, USA; (S.S.); (R.M.); (G.T.)
| | - Giuseppe Tosto
- The Department of Neurology, The Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, 630 West 168th Street, New York, NY 10032, USA; (S.S.); (R.M.); (G.T.)
| | - Caghan Kizil
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) within Helmholtz Association, Tatzberg 41, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (T.S.); (P.B.); (S.P.); (M.I.C.)
- The Department of Neurology, The Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, 630 West 168th Street, New York, NY 10032, USA; (S.S.); (R.M.); (G.T.)
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8
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The Role of AhR in the Hallmarks of Brain Aging: Friend and Foe. Cells 2021; 10:cells10102729. [PMID: 34685709 PMCID: PMC8534784 DOI: 10.3390/cells10102729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a ligand-activated transcription factor, has been considered to be involved in aging phenotypes across several species. This receptor is a highly conserved biosensor that is activated by numerous exogenous and endogenous molecules, including microbiota metabolites, to mediate several physiological and toxicological functions. Brain aging hallmarks, which include glial cell activation and inflammation, increased oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and cellular senescence, increase the vulnerability of humans to various neurodegenerative diseases. Interestingly, many studies have implicated AhR signaling pathways in the aging process and longevity across several species. This review provides an overview of the impact of AhR pathways on various aging hallmarks in the brain and the implications for AhR signaling as a mechanism in regulating aging-related diseases of the brain. We also explore how the nature of AhR ligands determines the outcomes of several signaling pathways in brain aging processes.
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Zhou Y, Zhao WJ, Quan W, Qiao CM, Cui C, Hong H, Shi Y, Niu GY, Zhao LP, Shen YQ. Dynamic changes of activated AHR in microglia and astrocytes in the substantia nigra-striatum system in an MPTP-induced Parkinson's disease mouse model. Brain Res Bull 2021; 176:174-183. [PMID: 34478811 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2021.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AHR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor expressed in various brain regions. However, little is known about the role of AHR during neuroinflammation in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrathydropyridine (MPTP)-induced Parkinson's disease (PD) mouse model. Here, mice were sacrificed at day 4, day 6 and day 8 respectively after MPTP or saline treatment. Behavioral tests, Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression, glial reaction, and AHR expression and activation were then assayed. As expected, mice treated with MPTP showed apparent behavioral dysfunctions and significantly reduced TH content. Immunofluorescence (IF) labeling showed an increased trend of phosphorylated AHR activation in the Substantia Nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and striatum after MPTP treatment. Western blot analysis demonstrated that MPTP treatment induced a significantly increased level of AHR at each time point tested, with the highest level observed at day 6 in the striatum. To determine exactly the AHR activation in relation to changes of glial cell reactivity, double IF labeling was performed for either IBA1 (microglia marker) and p-AHR, or GFAP (astrocyte marker) and p-AHR. The results demonstrated that MPTP treatment not only increases the number of p-AHR-positive IBA1-expressing cells in the striatum and the SNpc, but also increases that of p-AHR-positive GFAP-expressing cells in the striatum. Intriguingly, the increase of the number of cells co-expressing both p-AHR and IBA1 was highest at day 4 in response to MPTP in the striatum and at day 8 in the SNpc. The number of cells co-expressing both p-AHR and GFAP was increased at days 4, 6 and 8 in the striatum. In conclusion, our study suggests that AHR activation may facilitate PD diagnosis and serve as a target for the treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhou
- Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China; Department of Neurodegeneration and Injury, Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wei-Jiang Zhao
- Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China; Department of Neurodegeneration and Injury, Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Wei Quan
- Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China; Department of Neurodegeneration and Injury, Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chen-Meng Qiao
- Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China; Department of Neurodegeneration and Injury, Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chun Cui
- Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China; Department of Neurodegeneration and Injury, Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hui Hong
- Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China; Department of Neurodegeneration and Injury, Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yun Shi
- Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China; Department of Neurodegeneration and Injury, Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Gu-Yu Niu
- Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China; Department of Neurodegeneration and Injury, Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Li-Ping Zhao
- Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China; Department of Neurodegeneration and Injury, Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yan-Qin Shen
- Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China; Department of Neurodegeneration and Injury, Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China.
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10
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Stockinger B, Shah K, Wincent E. AHR in the intestinal microenvironment: safeguarding barrier function. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2021; 18:559-570. [PMID: 33742166 PMCID: PMC7611426 DOI: 10.1038/s41575-021-00430-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Mammalian aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is a ligand-dependent transcription factor that belongs to the basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH)-PAS family of transcription factors, which are evolutionarily conserved environmental sensors. In the absence of ligands, AHR resides in the cytoplasm in a complex with molecular chaperones such as HSP90, XAP2 and p23. Upon ligand binding, AHR translocates into the nuclear compartment, where it dimerizes with its partner protein, AHR nuclear translocator (ARNT), an obligatory partner for the DNA-binding and functional activity. Historically, AHR had mostly been considered as a key intermediary for the detrimental effects of environmental pollutants on the body. However, following the discovery of AHR-mediated functions in various immune cells, as well as the emergence of non-toxic 'natural' AHR ligands, this view slowly began to change, and the study of AHR-deficient mice revealed a plethora of important beneficial functions linked to AHR activation. This Review focuses on regulation of the AHR pathway and the barrier-protective roles AHR has in haematopoietic, as well as non-haematopoietic, cells within the intestinal microenvironment. It covers the nature of AHR ligands and feedback regulation of the AHR pathway, outlining the currently known physiological functions in immune, epithelial, endothelial and neuronal cells of the intestine.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Emma Wincent
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
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11
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Zablon HA, Ko CI, Puga A. Converging Roles of the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor in Early Embryonic Development, Maintenance of Stemness, and Tissue Repair. Toxicol Sci 2021; 182:1-9. [PMID: 34009372 PMCID: PMC8285021 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfab050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor well-known for its adaptive role as a sensor of environmental toxicants and mediator of the metabolic detoxification of xenobiotic ligands. In addition, a growing body of experimental data has provided indisputable evidence that the AHR regulates critical functions of cell physiology and embryonic development. Recent studies have shown that the naïve AHR-that is, unliganded to xenobiotics but activated endogenously-has a crucial role in maintenance of embryonic stem cell pluripotency, tissue repair, and regulation of cancer stem cell stemness. Depending on the cellular context, AHR silences the expression of pluripotency genes Oct4 and Nanog and potentiates differentiation, whereas curtailing cellular plasticity and stemness. In these processes, AHR-mediated contextual responses and outcomes are dictated by changes of interacting partners in signaling pathways, gene networks, and cell-type-specific genomic structures. In this review, we focus on AHR-mediated changes of genomic architecture as an emerging mechanism for the AHR to regulate gene expression at the transcriptional level. Collective evidence places this receptor as a physiological hub connecting multiple biological processes whose disruption impacts on embryonic development, tissue repair, and maintenance or loss of stemness.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Alvaro Puga
- Department of Environmental and Public Health Sciences, Center for Environmental Genetics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio 45267, USA
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12
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Wei GZ, Martin KA, Xing PY, Agrawal R, Whiley L, Wood TK, Hejndorf S, Ng YZ, Low JZY, Rossant J, Nechanitzky R, Holmes E, Nicholson JK, Tan EK, Matthews PM, Pettersson S. Tryptophan-metabolizing gut microbes regulate adult neurogenesis via the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2021091118. [PMID: 34210797 PMCID: PMC8271728 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2021091118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
While modulatory effects of gut microbes on neurological phenotypes have been reported, the mechanisms remain largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that indole, a tryptophan metabolite produced by tryptophanase-expressing gut microbes, elicits neurogenic effects in the adult mouse hippocampus. Neurogenesis is reduced in germ-free (GF) mice and in GF mice monocolonized with a single-gene tnaA knockout (KO) mutant Escherichia coli unable to produce indole. External administration of systemic indole increases adult neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus in these mouse models and in specific pathogen-free (SPF) control mice. Indole-treated mice display elevated synaptic markers postsynaptic density protein 95 and synaptophysin, suggesting synaptic maturation effects in vivo. By contrast, neurogenesis is not induced by indole in aryl hydrocarbon receptor KO (AhR-/-) mice or in ex vivo neurospheres derived from them. Neural progenitor cells exposed to indole exit the cell cycle, terminally differentiate, and mature into neurons that display longer and more branched neurites. These effects are not observed with kynurenine, another AhR ligand. The indole-AhR-mediated signaling pathway elevated the expression of β-catenin, Neurog2, and VEGF-α genes, thus identifying a molecular pathway connecting gut microbiota composition and their metabolic function to neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus. Our data have implications for the understanding of mechanisms of brain aging and for potential next-generation therapeutic opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Zhang Wei
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 636921
- National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 169857
| | - Katherine A Martin
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 636921
- National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 169857
| | - Peter Yuli Xing
- The Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551
- Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637335
| | - Ruchi Agrawal
- The Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551
| | - Luke Whiley
- Australian National Phenome Centre, Health Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Perth WA 6150, Australia
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Nedlands WA 6009, Australia
| | - Thomas K Wood
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802
| | - Sophia Hejndorf
- Department of Neurobiology, Care and Society, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Yong Zhi Ng
- The School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551
| | - Jeremy Zhi Yan Low
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 636921
| | - Janet Rossant
- Program in Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and Learning, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Robert Nechanitzky
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 2C1, Canada
| | - Elaine Holmes
- Australian National Phenome Centre, Health Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Perth WA 6150, Australia
- Section for Nutrition Research, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Jeremy K Nicholson
- Australian National Phenome Centre, Health Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Perth WA 6150, Australia
- Institute of Global Health Innovation, Imperial College London, London SW7 2NA, United Kingdom
| | - Eng-King Tan
- National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 169857
| | - Paul M Matthews
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 636921
- UK Dementia Research Institute, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
- Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, United Kingdom
| | - Sven Pettersson
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 636921;
- National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 169857
- Department of Neurobiology, Care and Society, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
- Faculty of Medical Sciences, Sunway University, 47500 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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13
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Gwak MG, Chang SY. Gut-Brain Connection: Microbiome, Gut Barrier, and Environmental Sensors. Immune Netw 2021; 21:e20. [PMID: 34277110 PMCID: PMC8263213 DOI: 10.4110/in.2021.21.e20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The gut is an important organ with digestive and immune regulatory function which consistently harbors microbiome ecosystem. The gut microbiome cooperates with the host to regulate the development and function of the immune, metabolic, and nervous systems. It can influence disease processes in the gut as well as extra-intestinal organs, including the brain. The gut closely connects with the central nervous system through dynamic bidirectional communication along the gut-brain axis. The connection between gut environment and brain may affect host mood and behaviors. Disruptions in microbial communities have been implicated in several neurological disorders. A link between the gut microbiota and the brain has long been described, but recent studies have started to reveal the underlying mechanism of the impact of the gut microbiota and gut barrier integrity on the brain and behavior. Here, we summarized the gut barrier environment and the 4 main gut-brain axis pathways. We focused on the important function of gut barrier on neurological diseases such as stress responses and ischemic stroke. Finally, we described the impact of representative environmental sensors generated by gut bacteria on acute neurological disease via the gut-brain axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min-Gyu Gwak
- Laboratory of Microbiology, College of Pharmacy, and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology (RIPST), Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | - Sun-Young Chang
- Laboratory of Microbiology, College of Pharmacy, and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology (RIPST), Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Korea
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14
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Dvořák Z, Poulíková K, Mani S. Indole scaffolds as a promising class of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor ligands. Eur J Med Chem 2021; 215:113231. [PMID: 33582577 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), deemed initially as a xenobiotic sensor, plays multiple physiological roles and is involved in various pathophysiological processes and many diseases' etiology. Therefore, the therapeutic and chemopreventive targeting of AhR is a fundamental issue. To date, thousands of structurally diverse ligands of AhR have been identified. The bottleneck in targeting the AhR is that it is a Janus-faced player with beneficial vs. harmful effects in the ligand-specific context. A distinct structural class of the AhR ligands is those with indole-based scaffolds. The present review summarizes the knowledge on the existing indole-derived AhR ligands, comprising natural and dietary compounds, synthetic compounds including clinically used drugs, endogenous intermediary metabolites, and catabolites produced by human microbiota. The examples of novel, indole ring containing, rational design based AhR ligands are presented. The molecular, in vitro, and in vivo effects are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zdeněk Dvořák
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, 783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic.
| | - Karolína Poulíková
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, 783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Sridhar Mani
- Department of Medicine and Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA.
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15
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Lai WT, Deng WF, Xu SX, Zhao J, Xu D, Liu YH, Guo YY, Wang MB, He FS, Ye SW, Yang QF, Liu TB, Zhang YL, Wang S, Li MZ, Yang YJ, Xie XH, Rong H. Shotgun metagenomics reveals both taxonomic and tryptophan pathway differences of gut microbiota in major depressive disorder patients. Psychol Med 2021; 51:90-101. [PMID: 31685046 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291719003027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The microbiota-gut-brain axis, especially the microbial tryptophan (Trp) biosynthesis and metabolism pathway (MiTBamp), may play a critical role in the pathogenesis of major depressive disorder (MDD). However, studies on the MiTBamp in MDD are lacking. The aim of the present study was to analyze the gut microbiota composition and the MiTBamp in MDD patients. METHODS We performed shotgun metagenomic sequencing of stool samples from 26 MDD patients and 29 healthy controls (HCs). In addition to the microbiota community and the MiTBamp analyses, we also built a classification based on the Random Forests (RF) and Boruta algorithm to identify the gut microbiota as biomarkers for MDD. RESULTS The Bacteroidetes abundance was strongly reduced whereas that of Actinobacteria was significantly increased in the MDD patients compared with the abundance in the HCs. Most noteworthy, the MDD patients had increased levels of Bifidobacterium, which is commonly used as a probiotic. Four Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) orthologies (KOs) (K01817, K11358, K01626, K01667) abundances in the MiTBamp were significantly lower in the MDD group. Furthermore, we found a negative correlation between the K01626 abundance and the HAMD scores in the MDD group. Finally, RF classification at the genus level can achieve an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.890. CONCLUSIONS The present findings enabled a better understanding of the changes in gut microbiota and the related Trp pathway in MDD. Alterations of the gut microbiota may have the potential as biomarkers for distinguishing MDD patients form HCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Tao Lai
- Department of Psychiatry, Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen Mental Health Center, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Wen-Feng Deng
- Laboratory of Brain Stimulation and Biological Psychiatry, Brain Function and Psychosomatic Medicine Institute, Second People's Hospital of Huizhou, Huizhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Shu-Xian Xu
- Laboratory of Brain Stimulation and Biological Psychiatry, Brain Function and Psychosomatic Medicine Institute, Second People's Hospital of Huizhou, Huizhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jie Zhao
- Department of Psychiatry, Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen Mental Health Center, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Dan Xu
- Department of Psychiatry, Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen Mental Health Center, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Yang-Hui Liu
- Department of Psychiatry, Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen Mental Health Center, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Yuan-Yuan Guo
- Department of Psychiatry, Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen Mental Health Center, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Ming-Bang Wang
- Xiamen Branch, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Birth Defects, Division of Neonatology, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, National Center for Children's Health, Shanghai, China
| | | | - Shu-Wei Ye
- Department of Psychiatry, Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen Mental Health Center, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Qi-Fan Yang
- Laboratory of Brain Stimulation and Biological Psychiatry, Brain Function and Psychosomatic Medicine Institute, Second People's Hospital of Huizhou, Huizhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Tie-Bang Liu
- Department of Psychiatry, Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen Mental Health Center, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Ying-Li Zhang
- Department of Depression, Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen Mental Health Center, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Sheng Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen Mental Health Center, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Min-Zhi Li
- Department of Psychiatry, Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen Mental Health Center, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Ying-Jia Yang
- Department of Depression, Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen Mental Health Center, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Xin-Hui Xie
- Department of Psychiatry, Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen Mental Health Center, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
- Laboratory of Brain Stimulation and Biological Psychiatry, Brain Function and Psychosomatic Medicine Institute, Second People's Hospital of Huizhou, Huizhou, Guangdong, China
- Center of Acute Psychiatry Service, Second People's Hospital of Huizhou, Huizhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Han Rong
- Department of Psychiatry, Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen Mental Health Center, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
- Affiliated Shenzhen Clinical College of Psychiatry, Jining Medical University, Jining, Shandong, China
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16
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Tsaktanis T, Beyer T, Nirschl L, Linnerbauer M, Grummel V, Bussas M, Tjon E, Mühlau M, Korn T, Hemmer B, Quintana FJ, Rothhammer V. Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Plasma Agonist Activity Correlates With Disease Activity in Progressive MS. NEUROLOGY-NEUROIMMUNOLOGY & NEUROINFLAMMATION 2020; 8:8/2/e933. [PMID: 33361385 PMCID: PMC7768947 DOI: 10.1212/nxi.0000000000000933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The relationship between serum aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) agonistic activity levels with disease severity, its modulation over the course of relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS), and its regulation in progressive MS (PMS) are unknown. Here, we report the analysis of AHR agonistic activity levels in cross-sectional and longitudinal serum samples of patients with RRMS and PMS. METHODS In a cross-sectional investigation, a total of 36 control patients diagnosed with noninflammatory diseases, 84 patients with RRMS, 35 patients with secondary progressive MS (SPMS), and 41 patients with primary progressive MS (PPMS) were included in this study. AHR activity was measured in a cell-based luciferase assay and correlated with age, sex, the presence of disease-modifying therapies, Expanded Disability Status Scale scores, and disease duration. In a second longitudinal investigation, we analyzed AHR activity in 13 patients diagnosed with RRMS over a period from 4 to 10 years and correlated AHR agonistic activity with white matter atrophy and lesion load volume changes. RESULTS In RRMS, AHR ligand levels were globally decreased and associated with disease duration and neurologic disability. In SPMS and PPMS, serum AHR agonistic activity was decreased and correlated with disease severity. Finally, in longitudinal serum samples of patients with RRMS, decreased AHR agonistic activity was linked to progressive CNS atrophy and increased lesion load. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that serum AHR agonist levels negatively correlate with disability in RRMS and PMS and decrease longitudinally in correlation with MRI markers of disease progression. Thus, serum AHR agonistic activity may serve as novel biomarker for disability progression in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thanos Tsaktanis
- From the Department of Neurology (T.T., T.B., L.N., M.L., V.G., M.B., M.M., T.K., B.H., V.R.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Department of Neurology (T.T., V.R.), University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuernberg; Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy) (T.K., B.H.), Germany; Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases (E.T., F.J.Q.), Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard (F.J.Q.), Cambridge, MA; and TUM-Neuroimaging Center (M.B., M.M.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Germany
| | - Tobias Beyer
- From the Department of Neurology (T.T., T.B., L.N., M.L., V.G., M.B., M.M., T.K., B.H., V.R.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Department of Neurology (T.T., V.R.), University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuernberg; Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy) (T.K., B.H.), Germany; Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases (E.T., F.J.Q.), Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard (F.J.Q.), Cambridge, MA; and TUM-Neuroimaging Center (M.B., M.M.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Germany
| | - Lucy Nirschl
- From the Department of Neurology (T.T., T.B., L.N., M.L., V.G., M.B., M.M., T.K., B.H., V.R.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Department of Neurology (T.T., V.R.), University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuernberg; Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy) (T.K., B.H.), Germany; Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases (E.T., F.J.Q.), Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard (F.J.Q.), Cambridge, MA; and TUM-Neuroimaging Center (M.B., M.M.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Germany
| | - Mathias Linnerbauer
- From the Department of Neurology (T.T., T.B., L.N., M.L., V.G., M.B., M.M., T.K., B.H., V.R.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Department of Neurology (T.T., V.R.), University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuernberg; Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy) (T.K., B.H.), Germany; Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases (E.T., F.J.Q.), Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard (F.J.Q.), Cambridge, MA; and TUM-Neuroimaging Center (M.B., M.M.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Germany
| | - Verena Grummel
- From the Department of Neurology (T.T., T.B., L.N., M.L., V.G., M.B., M.M., T.K., B.H., V.R.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Department of Neurology (T.T., V.R.), University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuernberg; Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy) (T.K., B.H.), Germany; Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases (E.T., F.J.Q.), Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard (F.J.Q.), Cambridge, MA; and TUM-Neuroimaging Center (M.B., M.M.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Germany
| | - Mathias Bussas
- From the Department of Neurology (T.T., T.B., L.N., M.L., V.G., M.B., M.M., T.K., B.H., V.R.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Department of Neurology (T.T., V.R.), University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuernberg; Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy) (T.K., B.H.), Germany; Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases (E.T., F.J.Q.), Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard (F.J.Q.), Cambridge, MA; and TUM-Neuroimaging Center (M.B., M.M.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Germany
| | - Emily Tjon
- From the Department of Neurology (T.T., T.B., L.N., M.L., V.G., M.B., M.M., T.K., B.H., V.R.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Department of Neurology (T.T., V.R.), University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuernberg; Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy) (T.K., B.H.), Germany; Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases (E.T., F.J.Q.), Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard (F.J.Q.), Cambridge, MA; and TUM-Neuroimaging Center (M.B., M.M.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Germany
| | - Mark Mühlau
- From the Department of Neurology (T.T., T.B., L.N., M.L., V.G., M.B., M.M., T.K., B.H., V.R.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Department of Neurology (T.T., V.R.), University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuernberg; Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy) (T.K., B.H.), Germany; Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases (E.T., F.J.Q.), Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard (F.J.Q.), Cambridge, MA; and TUM-Neuroimaging Center (M.B., M.M.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Germany
| | - Thomas Korn
- From the Department of Neurology (T.T., T.B., L.N., M.L., V.G., M.B., M.M., T.K., B.H., V.R.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Department of Neurology (T.T., V.R.), University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuernberg; Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy) (T.K., B.H.), Germany; Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases (E.T., F.J.Q.), Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard (F.J.Q.), Cambridge, MA; and TUM-Neuroimaging Center (M.B., M.M.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Germany
| | - Bernhard Hemmer
- From the Department of Neurology (T.T., T.B., L.N., M.L., V.G., M.B., M.M., T.K., B.H., V.R.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Department of Neurology (T.T., V.R.), University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuernberg; Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy) (T.K., B.H.), Germany; Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases (E.T., F.J.Q.), Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard (F.J.Q.), Cambridge, MA; and TUM-Neuroimaging Center (M.B., M.M.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Germany
| | - Francisco J Quintana
- From the Department of Neurology (T.T., T.B., L.N., M.L., V.G., M.B., M.M., T.K., B.H., V.R.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Department of Neurology (T.T., V.R.), University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuernberg; Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy) (T.K., B.H.), Germany; Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases (E.T., F.J.Q.), Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard (F.J.Q.), Cambridge, MA; and TUM-Neuroimaging Center (M.B., M.M.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Germany
| | - Veit Rothhammer
- From the Department of Neurology (T.T., T.B., L.N., M.L., V.G., M.B., M.M., T.K., B.H., V.R.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Department of Neurology (T.T., V.R.), University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuernberg; Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy) (T.K., B.H.), Germany; Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases (E.T., F.J.Q.), Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard (F.J.Q.), Cambridge, MA; and TUM-Neuroimaging Center (M.B., M.M.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Germany.
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17
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Skonieczna-Żydecka K, Jakubczyk K, Maciejewska-Markiewicz D, Janda K, Kaźmierczak-Siedlecka K, Kaczmarczyk M, Łoniewski I, Marlicz W. Gut Biofactory-Neurocompetent Metabolites within the Gastrointestinal Tract. A Scoping Review. Nutrients 2020; 12:E3369. [PMID: 33139656 PMCID: PMC7693392 DOI: 10.3390/nu12113369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The gut microbiota have gained much scientific attention recently. Apart from unravelling the taxonomic data, we should understand how the altered microbiota structure corresponds to functions of this complex ecosystem. The metabolites of intestinal microorganisms, especially bacteria, exert pleiotropic effects on the human organism and contribute to the host systemic balance. These molecules play key roles in regulating immune and metabolic processes. A subset of them affect the gut brain axis signaling and balance the mental wellbeing. Neurotransmitters, short chain fatty acids, tryptophan catabolites, bile acids and phosphatidylcholine, choline, serotonin, and L-carnitine metabolites possess high neuroactive potential. A scoping literature search in PubMed/Embase was conducted up until 20 June 2020, using three major search terms "microbiota metabolites" AND "gut brain axis" AND "mental health". This review aimed to enhance our knowledge regarding the gut microbiota functional capacity, and support current and future attempts to create new compounds for future clinical interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Skonieczna-Żydecka
- Department of Human Nutrition and Metabolomics, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, 71-460 Szczecin, Poland; (K.S.-Ż.); (K.J.); (D.M.-M.); (K.J.)
| | - Karolina Jakubczyk
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Medical University of Gdansk, Smoluchowskiego 17, 80-214 Gdańsk, Poland;
| | - Dominika Maciejewska-Markiewicz
- Department of Human Nutrition and Metabolomics, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, 71-460 Szczecin, Poland; (K.S.-Ż.); (K.J.); (D.M.-M.); (K.J.)
| | - Katarzyna Janda
- Department of Human Nutrition and Metabolomics, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, 71-460 Szczecin, Poland; (K.S.-Ż.); (K.J.); (D.M.-M.); (K.J.)
| | | | - Mariusz Kaczmarczyk
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Biochemistry, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland;
| | - Igor Łoniewski
- Department of Human Nutrition and Metabolomics, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, 71-460 Szczecin, Poland; (K.S.-Ż.); (K.J.); (D.M.-M.); (K.J.)
| | - Wojciech Marlicz
- Department of Gastroenterology, Pomeranian Medical University, 71-252 Szczecin, Poland
- The Centre for Digestive Diseases Endoklinika, 70-535 Szczecin, Poland
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18
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Demirci Y, Cucun G, Poyraz YK, Mohammed S, Heger G, Papatheodorou I, Ozhan G. Comparative Transcriptome Analysis of the Regenerating Zebrafish Telencephalon Unravels a Resource With Key Pathways During Two Early Stages and Activation of Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling at the Early Wound Healing Stage. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:584604. [PMID: 33163496 PMCID: PMC7581945 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.584604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Owing to its pronounced regenerative capacity in many tissues and organs, the zebrafish brain represents an ideal platform to understand the endogenous regeneration mechanisms that restore tissue integrity and function upon injury or disease. Although radial glial and neuronal cell populations have been characterized with respect to specific marker genes, comprehensive transcriptomic profiling of the regenerating telencephalon has not been conducted so far. Here, by processing the lesioned and unlesioned hemispheres of the telencephalon separately, we reveal the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) at the early wound healing and early proliferative stages of regeneration, i.e., 20 h post-lesion (hpl) and 3 days post-lesion (dpl), respectively. At 20 hpl, we detect a far higher number of DEGs in the lesioned hemisphere than in the unlesioned half and only 7% of all DEGs in both halves. However, this difference disappears at 3 dpl, where the lesioned and unlesioned hemispheres share 40% of all DEGs. By performing an extensive comparison of the gene expression profiles in these stages, we unravel that the lesioned hemispheres at 20 hpl and 3 dpl exhibit distinct transcriptional profiles. We further unveil a prominent activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling at 20 hpl, returning to control level in the lesioned site at 3 dpl. Wnt/β-catenin signaling indeed appears to control a large number of genes associated primarily with the p53, apoptosis, forkhead box O (FoxO), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathways specifically at 20 hpl. Based on these results, we propose that the lesioned and unlesioned hemispheres react to injury dynamically during telencephalon regeneration and that the activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling at the early wound healing stage plays a key role in the regulation of cellular and molecular events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeliz Demirci
- İzmir Biomedicine and Genome Center (IBG), Dokuz Eylül University Health Campus, İzmir, Turkey.,İzmir International Biomedicine and Genome Institute (IBG-İzmir), Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, Turkey.,European Molecular Biology Laboratory - European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI), Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Gokhan Cucun
- İzmir Biomedicine and Genome Center (IBG), Dokuz Eylül University Health Campus, İzmir, Turkey.,İzmir International Biomedicine and Genome Institute (IBG-İzmir), Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Yusuf Kaan Poyraz
- İzmir Biomedicine and Genome Center (IBG), Dokuz Eylül University Health Campus, İzmir, Turkey.,İzmir International Biomedicine and Genome Institute (IBG-İzmir), Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Suhaib Mohammed
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory - European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI), Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Irene Papatheodorou
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory - European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI), Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Gunes Ozhan
- İzmir Biomedicine and Genome Center (IBG), Dokuz Eylül University Health Campus, İzmir, Turkey.,İzmir International Biomedicine and Genome Institute (IBG-İzmir), Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, Turkey
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19
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Zambusi A, Ninkovic J. Regeneration of the central nervous system-principles from brain regeneration in adult zebrafish. World J Stem Cells 2020; 12:8-24. [PMID: 32110272 PMCID: PMC7031763 DOI: 10.4252/wjsc.v12.i1.8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Poor recovery of neuronal functions is one of the most common healthcare challenges for patients with different types of brain injuries and/or neurodegenerative diseases. Therapeutic interventions face two major challenges: (1) How to generate neurons de novo to replenish the neuronal loss caused by injuries or neurodegeneration (restorative neurogenesis) and (2) How to prevent or limit the secondary tissue damage caused by long-term accumulation of glial cells, including microglia, at injury site (glial scar). In contrast to mammals, zebrafish have extensive regenerative capacity in numerous vital organs, including the brain, thus making them a valuable model to improve the existing therapeutic approaches for human brain repair. In response to injuries to the central nervous system (CNS), zebrafish have developed specific mechanisms to promote the recovery of the lost tissue architecture and functionality of the damaged CNS. These mechanisms include the activation of a restorative neurogenic program in a specific set of glial cells (ependymoglia) and the resolution of both the glial scar and inflammation, thus enabling proper neuronal specification and survival. In this review, we discuss the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the regenerative ability in the adult zebrafish brain and conclude with the potential applicability of these mechanisms in repair of the mammalian CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Zambusi
- Helmholtz Center Munich, Biomedical Center, Inst Stem Cell Res, Institute of Stem Cell Research, Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Munich, Planegg 82152, Germany
| | - Jovica Ninkovic
- Helmholtz Center Munich, Biomedical Center, Inst Stem Cell Res, Institute of Stem Cell Research, Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Munich, Planegg 82152, Germany
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20
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Chen WC, Chang LH, Huang SS, Huang YJ, Chih CL, Kuo HC, Lee YH, Lee IH. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor modulates stroke-induced astrogliosis and neurogenesis in the adult mouse brain. J Neuroinflammation 2019; 16:187. [PMID: 31606043 PMCID: PMC6790016 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-019-1572-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is a ligand-dependent transcription factor activated by environmental agonists and dietary tryptophan metabolites for the immune response and cell cycle regulation. Emerging evidence suggests that AHR activation after acute stroke may play a role in brain ischemic injury. However, whether AHR activation alters poststroke astrogliosis and neurogenesis remains unknown. METHODS We adopted conditional knockout of AHR from nestin-expressing neural stem/progenitor cells (AHRcKO) and wild-type (WT) mice in the permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model. WT mice were treated with either vehicle or the AHR antagonist 6,2',4'-trimethoxyflavone (TMF, 5 mg/kg/day) intraperitoneally. The animals were examined at 2 and 7 days after MCAO. RESULTS The AHR signaling pathway was significantly upregulated after stroke. Both TMF-treated WT and AHRcKO mice showed significantly decreased infarct volume, improved sensorimotor, and nonspatial working memory functions compared with their respective controls. AHR immunoreactivities were increased predominantly in activated microglia and astrocytes after MCAO compared with the normal WT controls. The TMF-treated WT and AHRcKO mice demonstrated significant amelioration of astrogliosis and microgliosis. Interestingly, these mice also showed augmentation of neural progenitor cell proliferation at the ipsilesional neurogenic subventricular zone (SVZ) and the hippocampal subgranular zone. At the peri-infarct cortex, the ipsilesional SVZ/striatum, and the hippocampus, both the TMF-treated and AHRcKO mice demonstrated downregulated IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ, CXCL1, and S100β, and concomitantly upregulated Neurogenin 2 and Neurogenin 1. CONCLUSION Neural cell-specific AHR activation following acute ischemic stroke increased astrogliosis and suppressed neurogenesis in adult mice. AHR inhibition in acute stroke may potentially benefit functional outcomes likely through reducing proinflammatory gliosis and preserving neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan-Ci Chen
- Department and Institute of Physiology, National Yang-Ming University, No.155, Sec. 2, Linong Street, Beitou District, Taipei, 11217, Taiwan
| | - Li-Hsin Chang
- Institute of Brain Science, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shiang-Suo Huang
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Medicine, Chung-Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Jie Huang
- Department and Institute of Physiology, National Yang-Ming University, No.155, Sec. 2, Linong Street, Beitou District, Taipei, 11217, Taiwan
| | | | - Hung-Chih Kuo
- Stem Cell Program, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Hsuan Lee
- Department and Institute of Physiology, National Yang-Ming University, No.155, Sec. 2, Linong Street, Beitou District, Taipei, 11217, Taiwan. .,Brain Research Center, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - I-Hui Lee
- Institute of Brain Science, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan. .,Brain Research Center, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan. .,Division of Cerebrovascular Diseases, Neurological Institute, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, No.201, Sec. 2, Shipai Rd., Beitou District, Taipei, 11217, Taiwan.
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