Internet gaming disorder in adolescents is linked to delay discounting but not probability discounting

A demonstration of superior judgement? Exploring league of legends players' performance in risky and ambiguous decision-making tasks

In three studies, we investigated how League of Legends (LOL) game experience and game skill relate to players' performance in the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART), and Probability Discounting Task (PDT). Additionally, the present study examined the relationship between players' in-game risk preferences and their performance in three types of decision-making tasks. To achieve this, we utilized a self-developed League of Legends Risk Propensity Scale (LRPS) to characterize LOL players' in-game risk preferences. The LRPS demonstrated appropriate reliability and validity in this study. Overall, our results indicated that the differences between LOL players' and non-players' decision-making performance were significant only in the PDT. Moreover, among LOL players, the relationship between game skill and decision-making performance was significant in the IGT (especially in the last sixty trials) and the PDT, but not in the BART. Furthermore, LRPS scores could predict performance in the PDT, but not in the IGT or BART. Our results suggest that experience and game skill in LOL are primarily linked to players' performance in risky decision-making tasks. Similarly, participants' in-game risk preferences in LOL are only related to their performance in the risky decision-making process, not in the ambiguous decision-making process. We propose that LOL players' in-game ambiguous decision-making processes may exhibit domain-specific characteristics.

Individualized prediction of online shopping addiction from whole-brain functional connectivity

Online shopping addiction (OSA) is defined as a behavioral addiction where an individual exhibits an unhealthy and excessive attachment to shopping on the Internet. Since the OSA shown its adverse impacts on individuals' daily life and social functions, it is important to examine the neurobiological underpinnings of OSA that could be used in clinical practice to identify individuals with OSA. The present study addressed this question by employing a connectome-based prediction model approach to predict the OSA tendency of healthy subjects from whole-brain resting-state functional connectivity. The OSA connectome - a set of connections across multiple brain networks that contributed to predict individuals' OSA tendency was identified, including the functional connectivity between the frontal-parietal network (FPN) and cingulo-opercular network (CON) (i.e., positive network), as well as the functional connectivity within default mode network (DMN) and that between FPN and DMN (i.e., negative network). Key nodes that contributed to the prediction model included the middle frontal gyrus, inferior frontal gyrus, anterior cingulate cortex, and inferior temporal gyrus, which have been associated with impulsivity and emotional processing. Notably, this connectome has shown its specific role in predicting OSA by controlling for the influence of general Internet addiction. Moreover, the strength of the negative network mediated the relationship between OSA and impulsivity, highlighting that the negative network underlies the impulsivity characteristic of OSA. Together, these findings advanced our understanding of the neural correlates of OSA and provided a promising framework for diagnosing OSA.

Navigating Exploitative Traps: Unveiling the Uncontrollable Reward Seeking of Individuals With Internet Gaming Disorder

BACKGROUND

Internet gaming disorder (IGD) involves an imbalance in the brain's dual system, characterized by heightened reward seeking and diminished cognitive control, which lead to decision-making challenges. The exploration-exploitation strategy is key to decision making, but how IGD affects this process is unclear.

METHODS

To investigate the impact of IGD on decision making, a modified version of the 2-armed bandit task was employed. Participants included 41 individuals with IGD and 44 healthy control individuals. The study assessed the strategies used by participants in the task, particularly focusing on the exploitation-exploration strategy. Additionally, functional magnetic resonance imaging was used to examine brain activation patterns during decision-making and estimation phases.

RESULTS

The study found that individuals with IGD demonstrated greater reliance on exploitative strategies in decision making due to their elevated value-seeking tendencies and decreased cognitive control. Individuals with IGD also displayed heightened activation in the presupplementary motor area and the ventral striatum compared with the healthy control group in both decision-making and estimation phases. Meanwhile, the prefrontal cortex showed more inhibition in individuals with IGD than in the healthy control group during exploitative strategies. This inhibition decreased as cognitive control diminished.

CONCLUSIONS

The imbalance in the development of the dual system in individuals with IGD may lead to an overreliance on exploitative strategies. This imbalance, marked by increased reward seeking and reduced cognitive control, contributes to difficulties in decision making and value-related behavioral processes in individuals with IGD.

Electrocortical correlates of hypersensitivity to large immediate rewards in sensation seeking

Sensation seeking and delay discounting are strong predictors of various risk-taking behaviors. However, the relationship between sensation seeking and delay discounting remains elusive. Here, we addressed this issue by examining how high sensation seekers (HSS; N = 40) and low sensation seekers (LSS; N = 40) evaluated immediate and delayed rewards with low and high amounts during a behavioral task and an EEG task of delay discounting. Although HSS and LSS exhibited comparable discounting preference at the behavioral level, HSS relative to LSS was associated with a greater delay discounting effect at the neural level when earned rewards were large. This abnormality of reward magnitude was further corroborated by an electrocortical hypersensitivity to large immediate rewards and a stronger neural coding of reward magnitude for HSS as compared to LSS. Our findings support both the hyperactive approach theory and the optimal arousal theory in sensation seeking and have implications for the prevention and intervention targeting sensation seeking to reduce maladaptive risk-taking behaviors.

Distributed attribute representation in the superior parietal lobe during probabilistic decision-making

Several studies have examined the neural substrates of probabilistic decision-making, but few have systematically investigated the neural representations of the two objective attributes of probabilistic rewards, that is, the reward amount and the probability. Specifically, whether there are common or distinct neural activity patterns to represent the objective attributes and their association with the neural representation of the subjective valuation remains largely underexplored. We conducted two studies (nStudy1  = 34, nStudy2  = 41) to uncover distributed neural representations of the objective attributes and subjective value as well as their association with individual probability discounting rates. The amount and probability were independently manipulated to better capture brain signals sensitive to these two attributes and were presented simultaneously in Study 1 and successively in Study 2. Both univariate and multivariate pattern analyses showed that the brain activities in the superior parietal lobule (SPL), including the postcentral gyrus, were modulated by the amount of rewards and probability in both studies. Further, representational similarity analysis revealed a similar neural representation between these two objective attributes and between the attribute and valuation. Moreover, the SPL tracked the subjective value integrated by the hyperbolic function. Probability-related brain activations in the inferior parietal lobule were associated with the variability in individual discounting rates. These findings provide novel insights into a similar neural representation of the two attributes during probabilistic decision-making and perhaps support the common neural coding of stimulus objective properties and subjective value in the field of probabilistic discounting.

Association of internet gaming disorder with impulsivity: role of risk preferences

BACKGROUND

Internet gaming disorder (IGD) is a formal mental disorder leading to personal and social impairment. Although it shares similar physical and psychosocial effects to substance use disorder, the psychological mechanisms underlying IGD remain unclear, although several researches have made significant contributions to its understanding. This study aims to elucidate the correlation between IGD, impulsive personality and risk preference of medical college students in China, from a questionnaire-based investigation.

METHODS

Based on the cluster random sampling method, a questionnaire survey was conducted among medical college students in Northern Anhui, China from September 3 to October 27, 2020. The questionnaires included the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale (IGD-20), Chinese revised of Barratt Impulsiveness Scale Version 11 (BIS-11), and risk appetite index (RPI). Perform independent sample t-tests, analysis of variance (ANOVA), correlation analysis, and moderating effect analysis using SPSS 23.0. P < 0. 05 is considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

624 participants completed the survey, including 257 males (41.19%) and 367 females (58.81%). All participants were between 18 and 24 years. We found that in IGD and its six different dimensions and RPI, males scored significantly higher than females. Additionally, our finding revealed there is statistical significance in IGD and impulsiveness between gaming group with game time greater than or equal to 4 h and non-gaming group. The IGD and its six different dimensions, among which all except for mood modification are positively correlated with impulsiveness and RPI. Mediating effects indicate that RPI plays a partial mediating role between motor impulsiveness and IGD.

CONCLUSION

The findings shows that there is a certain relationship between impulsivity and RPI, as well as IGD and its dimensions. RPI may be a mediator between impulsivity and IGD, and men have higher IGD. The findings supported the compensatory hypothesis. These findings may contribute to further research and development of intervention and prevention measures for IGD.

The prevalence of internet gaming disorders and the associated psychosocial risk factors among adolescents in Malaysian secondary schools

Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) has been placed under the conditions for further study segment in DSM-5. The purpose of the current study was to develop a preliminary psychosocial model as a reference for providing appropriate intervention, particularly for adolescents with IGD. A total of 5290 adolescents from secondary schools in seven states in Malaysia were recruited by using proportionate random sampling. A standardized set of validated questionnaires such as DASS-21, BIS-11, and IGDS9-SF were distributed to participants that fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The prevalence of IGD among Malaysian adolescents was 3.5%. The bivariate analysis summarized that factors such as stress, impulsivity, gender, time spent using the internet, and relationship with parents and friends; have statistically significant associations with IGD. The logistic regression model revealed that adolescents with IGD were 9 times more likely to experience extremely severe stress (p < 0.001). Several psychosocial factors were associated strongly with IGD in the current study, however, mental health shows the most significant issues among adolescents with IGD. Immediate intervention through a psychological approach to internet gaming is needed from parents, schools, and also respective stakeholders. IGD may become one of the addictions diseases that cause deterioration in many aspects of an adolescent's future life without serious intervention.

Reinforcer pathology of internet-related behaviors among college students: Data from six countries

Research has demonstrated that repeated engagement in low-effort behaviors that are associated with immediate reward, such as Internet use, can result in a pathological reinforcement process in which the behavior is increasingly selected over other activities due, in part, to a low availability of alternative activities and to a strong preference for immediate rather than delayed rewards (delay discounting). However, this reinforcer pathology model has not been generalized to other Internet-related behaviors, such as online gaming or smartphone use. Given the widespread availability of these technologies, it is also important to examine whether reinforcer pathology of Internet-related behaviors is culturally universal or culture-specific. The current study examines relations between behavioral economic constructs (Internet demand, delay discounting, and alternative reinforcement) and Internet-related addictive behaviors (harmful Internet use, smartphone use, online gaming, and Internet sexual behavior) in a cross-sectional sample of college students (N = 1,406) from six different countries (Argentina, Australia, India, Malaysia, the United Kingdom, and the United States). Using structural equation modeling, Internet demand was associated with harmful Internet use, smartphone use, and online gaming; delay discounting was associated with harmful smartphone use; and alternative reinforcement was associated with harmful Internet and smartphone use. The models were partially invariant across countries. However, mean levels of behavioral economic variables differed across countries, country-level gross domestic product, person-level income, and sex at birth. Results support behavioral economic theory and highlight the importance of considering both individual and country-level sociocultural contextual factors in models for understanding harmful engagement with Internet-related behaviors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Sex differences in neural substrates of risk taking: Implications for sex-specific vulnerabilities to internet gaming disorder

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Sex differences in internet gaming disorder (IGD) remain unknown. Investigating sex-specific neural features that underlie the core risk factor (i.e., risk-taking) of IGD would help in understanding sex-specific vulnerabilities to IGD and advance sex-specific treatments and prevention for IGD.

METHODS

111 participants (28 IGD males, 27 IGD females, 26 recreational game user (RGU) males, 30 RGU females) completed a probability discounting task during fMRI scanning.

RESULTS

First, among RGUs, males showed a higher risk-taking tendency and greater neural activation associated with risk/value evaluation for reward (the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), left putamen) and smaller activation associated with cognitive control (the inferior frontal gyrus) than females during the contrast of risky-safe choices. Moreover, males showed a greater modulatory effect of risky choices on the connection from the vmPFC/ACC to the left putamen than females. Second, IGD males showed decreased activation in the vmPFC/ACC and left putamen compared to RGU males, whereas this decrease did not exist in IGD females.

DISCUSSION

Males show a higher risk-taking tendency than females. Altered neural substrates associated with risky decision-making exist in IGD males but not in IGD females.

CONCLUSIONS

The present findings fill the gap in information on the behavioral and neural substrates underlying IGD among females and demonstrate that a high risk-taking tendency is a risk factor and core symptom only in IGD males but not in IGD females. It is necessary to design and adopt distinct treatments and prevention strategies for IGD in males and females.

“Game (not) Over”: A Systematic Review of Video Game Disorder in Adolescents

This study aims to characterize video game use disorder in adolescents, identifying the particularities of those who present it, its effects at the brain level, related factors, and existing measurement instruments. A systematic review of the scientific publications available in Scopus was carried out, between the period 2014-2018 on video game use disorder in adolescents. Adolescents with this disorder are characterized by being mostly men, spending more time daily and weekly playing than adolescents without this disorder, showing diverse symptoms in the behavioral, affective, and cognitive areas. At brain level, it is referred that in this disorder there is an increase and decrease in the activation of specific areas of the brain. Likewise, the presence of some psychological disorder and impulsivity are considered factors that increase the risk of suffering from it. However, there are protective factors as school commitment and parental supervision, among others. How to cite: Rojas-Jara, C., Polanco-Carrasco, R., Navarro-Castillo, R., Faúndez-Castillo, F., & Chamorro-Gallardo, M. (2022). “Game (not) Over”: A Systematic Review of Video Game Disorder in Adolescents. Revista Colombiana de Psicología, 31(2), 45-64. https://doi.org/10.15446/rcp.v31n2.90741

Reward-related decision-making deficits in internet gaming disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis

AIMS

To estimate the aggregated effect sizes of reward-related decision-making deficits in internet gaming disorder (IGD) and to explore potential moderators on the variability of effect sizes across studies.

DESIGN

Review of peer-reviewed studies comparing reward-related decision-making performance between IGD and control participants identified via PubMed, Web of Science and ProQuest databases. Random-effects modeling was conducted using Hedge's g as the effect size (ES). The effects of decision-making situation, valence, sample type, testing environment, IGD severity and self-reported impulsivity on decision-making differences were examined by moderator analyses.

SETTING

No restrictions on location.

PARTICIPANTS

Twenty-four studies (20 independent samples) were included in the meta-analysis, resulting in 604 IGD and 641 control participants and 35 ESs.

MEASURES

Reward-related decision-making differences between IGD and control groups.

FINDINGS

The overall ES for decision-making deficits in IGD was small (g = -0.45, P < 0.01). The effects were comparable across risky, ambiguous and inter-temporal decision-making. Larger aggregate ESs were identified for pure-gain and mixed compared with pure-loss decision-making. Studies based on clinical and community samples showed similar effects. No significant difference between behavioral studies and those with extra measurements was observed. Decision-making alterations were not closely associated with IGD severity or self-reported impulsivity differences at the study level.

CONCLUSIONS

Internet gaming disorder appears to be consistently associated with reward-related decision-making deficits.

Delay Discounting in Established and Proposed Behavioral Addictions: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Steep delay discounting, or a greater preference for smaller-immediate rewards over larger-delayed rewards, is a common phenomenon across a range of substance use and psychiatric disorders. Non-substance behavioral addictions (e.g., gambling disorder, internet gaming disorder, food addiction) are of increasing interest in delay discounting research. Individual studies have reported steeper discounting in people exhibiting various behavioral addictions compared to controls or significant correlations between discounting and behavioral addiction scales; however, not all studies have found significant effects. To synthesize the published research in this area and identify priorities for future research, we conducted a pre-registered systematic review and meta-analysis (following PRISMA guidelines) of delay discounting studies across a range of behavioral addiction categories. The final sample included 78 studies, yielding 87 effect sizes for the meta-analysis. For studies with categorical designs, we found statistically significant, medium-to-large effect sizes for gambling disorder (Cohen’s d = 0.82) and IGD (d = 0.89), although the IGD effect size was disproportionately influenced by a single study (adjusted d = 0.53 after removal). Categorical internet/smartphone studies were non-significant (d = 0.16, p = 0.06). Aggregate correlations in dimensional studies were statistically significant, but generally small magnitude for gambling (r = 0.22), internet/smartphone (r = 0.13) and food addiction (r = 0.12). Heterogeneity statistics suggested substantial variability across studies, and publication bias indices indicated moderate impact of unpublished or small sample studies. These findings generally suggest that some behavioral addictions are associated with steeper discounting, with the most robust evidence for gambling disorder. Importantly, this review also highlighted several categories with notably smaller effect sizes or categories with too few studies to be included (e.g., compulsive buying, exercise addiction). Further research on delay discounting in behavioral addictions is warranted, particularly for categories with relatively few studies.

Addictive use of digital devices in young children: Associations with delay discounting, self-control and academic performance

The use of smartphones, tablets and laptops/PCs has become ingrained in adults’ and increasingly in children’s lives, which has sparked a debate about the risk of addiction to digital devices. Previous research has linked specific use of digital devices (e.g. online gaming, smartphone screen time) with impulsive behavior in the context of intertemporal choice among adolescents and adults. However, not much is known about children’s addictive behavior towards digital devices and its relationship to personality factors and academic performance. This study investigated the associations between addictive use of digital devices, self-reported usage duration, delay discounting, self-control and academic success in children aged 10 to 13. Addictive use of digital devices was positively related to delay discounting, but self-control confounded the relationship between the two variables. Furthermore, self-control and self-reported usage duration but not the degree of addictive use predicted the most recent grade average. These findings indicate that children’s problematic behavior towards digital devices compares to other maladaptive behaviors (e.g. substance abuse, pathological gambling) in terms of impulsive choice and point towards the key role self-control seems to play in lowering a potential risk of digital addiction.

Determinants of pro-environmental behavior among excessive smartphone usage children and moderate smartphone usage children in Taiwan

INTRODUCTION

Although there is evidence linking the relationships between smartphone usage with health, stress, and academic performance, there is still inadequate knowledge about the influence on pro-environmental behaviors. This study seeks to bridge this gap by adapting the theory of attribution framework to examine the effects of personal norms, social norms, perceived behavioral control on pro-environmental behavior of smartphone usage in children.

METHODS

A total of 225 children aged between 11 to 12 from eight selected public primary schools at the Hsinchu Science and Industrial Park in Taiwan were surveyed. Two distinct groups (excessive versus moderate usage) were purposefully selected for comparison, of which 96 participants were excessive smartphone users while the remaining 129 were moderate smartphone users.

RESULTS

Findings revealed significant differences between excessive and moderate smartphone usage children groups in personal norms (p < 0.001), social norms (p = 0.002), perceived behavioral control (p = 0.001), and pro-environmental behavior (p = 0.001). Findings for excessive smartphone usage children showed that social norms (β = 0.428, t = 4.096***, p < 0.001) had a direct predictive impact on pro-environmental behavior. In contrast, while there was no direct path established between personal norms and pro-environmental behavior (β = 0.177, t = 1.580, p > 0.05), as well as social norms and pro-environmental behavior for moderate smartphone usage children (β = 0.181, t = 1.924, p > 0.05), but such a relationship could be developed through the mediating effect of perceived behavioral control (β = 0.497, t = 4.471***, p < 0.001).

DISCUSSION

The results suggested that excessive smartphone usage children lack positive perceived behavioral control, and their pro-environmental behavior could only be predicted through explicit social norms, whereas pro-environmental behavior of moderate smartphone usage children was implicitly influenced by personal norms through perceived behavioral control.

The Association Between Generalized and Specific Problematic Internet Use and Its Gender Differences Across Different Educational Levels

This study had two aims: to test the effect and the effect size of specific problematic Internet use (SPIU) [online shopping, online pornography, social network site (SNS) usage, and Internet gaming] on generalized problematic Internet use (GPIU) and to reveal the gender differences in GPIU and SPIU for students from the elementary school level to the university level. In total, 5,215 Chinese students (2,303 males, mean age = 16.20 years, range = 10–23 years) from four types of schools (elementary school, junior high school, senior high school, and university) provided self-report data on demographic variables (gender and educational levels), online shopping, online pornography, SNS usage, Internet gaming, and GPIU. After calculations had been controlled for demographic variables, the results indicated that (i) online shopping, online pornography, SNS usage, and Internet gaming positively predicted GPIU—and Internet gaming was the most critical predictor of GPIU—and that (ii) gender differences were revealed in Internet gaming and GPIU in all educational levels, except at senior high school where the gender differences in GPIU were not significant. Significant gender differences were found for online shopping and online pornography for all educational levels above elementary school. These results provided further understanding of the association between GPIU and SPIU and gender differences in PIU, which suggested that gender differences across different educational levels should be considered in interventions of PIU.

Impulsiveness and suicide in male offenders: Examining the buffer roles of regulatory emotional self-efficacy and flourishing

OBJECTIVES

Although impulsiveness has been recognized as a risk factor for suicide, few studies have explored how to protect offenders with impulsiveness from the risk of suicide. This study aims to examine the relationships among impulsiveness, suicide risk, regulatory emotional self-efficacy (RESE), and flourishing, focusing on the moderating effects of RESE and flourishing in the relationship between impulsiveness and suicide risk.

DESIGN AND METHODS

This is a cross-sectional study of 941 male offenders. All participants were requested to provide some items of demographic information and to complete a package of self-reported questionnaires measuring impulsiveness, suicide risk, RESE, and flourishing.

RESULTS

The results indicate that impulsiveness is positively correlated with suicide risk, while RESE and flourishing are negatively correlated with impulsiveness and suicide risk. Most importantly, both RESE and its dimension managing negative affect (NEG) negatively moderate the relationship between impulsiveness and suicide risk. Flourishing and the RESE dimension expressing positive affect (POS) show no significant moderating effect on impulsiveness-suicide risk link.

CONCLUSIONS

Regulatory emotional self-efficacy, especially its NEG dimension, can buffer the impact of impulsiveness on suicide risk in male offenders, indicating that these factors might be useful supplements in suicide prevention.

PRACTITIONER POINTS

Offender with higher level of RESE and flourishing show lower level of impulsiveness and suicide risk. High level of RESE and its NEG dimension can buffer the effect of impulsiveness on suicide risk. RESE, especially its NEG dimension might be a useful supplement for suicide prevention in offenders with high impulsiveness.

The relationship between delay discounting and Internet addiction: A systematic review and meta-analysis

AIMS

To estimate the difference in delay discounting (DD) between subjects with Internet addiction (IA) and those without as well as to identify significant variables involved in DD.

METHODS

Using the keywords related to IA (e.g., "excessive Internet use", "Internet dependence") AND "delayed reward discounting" OR "delay discounting" OR "temporal discounting" OR "delayed gratification" OR time discounting OR intertemporal choice OR impulsive choice, the PubMed, Embase, and PsycINFO databases were searched from inception to June 2020 for English articles with comparison between subjects with IA and those without. Effect sizes were calculated by group means from the k value or area under the curve (AUC). The random-effects models were used.

RESULTS

Fourteen studies in total were eligible for the current meta-analysis that involved 696 subjects with IA (mean age = 22.71) and 2,394 subjects without (mean age = 21.91). Subjects with IA had a steeper DD rate (g = 1.10, 95% CI: 0.57-1.64; p ≤ 0.01) compared with that in those without. Regarding DD data, the difference between k value and AUC was significant (p < 0.01; AUC > k). Additionally, the estimation of DD by the paper-and-pencil task was larger than that by the computerized task (p < 0.01). Significant difference in the DD rate was also noted between subjects with Internet gaming disorder (IGD) and those with unspecified IA (p = 0.00; IGD > IA). The percentage of men and task variables were significantly associated with the DD rate (all p < 0.01), suggesting impaired DD in subjects with IA.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggested the feasibility of utilizing the DD rate as a therapeutic index for cognitive control in IA. Nevertheless, judicious use is recommended taking into consideration the significant difference between k value and AUC.

Enhanced neural responses in specific phases of reward processing in individuals with Internet gaming disorder

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Internet gaming disorder (IGD) has become a global health problem. The self-regulation model noted that a shift to reward system, whether due to overwhelming reward-seeking or impaired control, can lead to self-regulation failures, e.g., addiction. The present study focused on the reward processing of IGD, aiming to provide insights into the etiology of IGD. Reward processing includes three phases: reward anticipation, outcome monitoring and choice evaluation. However, it is not clear which phases of reward processing are different between individuals with IGD and healthy controls (HC).

METHODS

To address this issue, the present study asked 27 individuals with IGD and 26 HC to complete a roulette task during a functional MRI scan.

RESULTS

Compared with HC, individuals with IGD preferred to take risks in pursuit of high rewards behaviorally and showed exaggerated brain activity in the striatum (nucleus accumbens and caudate) during the reward anticipation and outcome monitoring but not during the choice evaluation.

DISCUSSION

These results reveal that the oversensitivity of the reward system to potential and positive rewards in college students with IGD drives them to approach risky options more frequently although they are able to assess the risk values of options and the correctness of decisions properly as HC do.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide partial support for the application of the self-regulation model to the IGD population. Moreover, this study enriches this model from the perspective of three phases of reward processing and provides specific targets for future research regarding effective treatment of IGD.

A systematic review and meta-analysis on the clinical implications of probability discounting among individuals with Internet gaming disorder

The significance of probability discounting (PD) among individuals with Internet gaming disorder (IGD) remains unclear. Following the PRISMA guidelines, we systematically searched the PubMed, Embase, and ScienceDirect databases for English articles on Internet addiction that included comparison between individuals with and without IGD as well as probabilistic discounting task as the main outcome from January 1970 to July 2020 using the appropriate keyword strings. The primary outcome was the overall difference in rate of PD, while the secondary outcomes included the difference in PD with magnitude of probabilistic reward and response time of the PD task. Effect size (ES) was calculated through dividing the group means (e.g., h value or AUC) by the pooled standard deviations of the two groups. A total of five studies with 300 participants (i.e., IGD group, n = 150, mean age = 20.27 ± 2.68; healthy controls, n = 150, mean age = 20.70 ± 2.81) were analyzed. The IGD group was more willing to take risks in probabilistic gains but performances on probabilistic losses were similar between the two groups. The IGD group also exhibited a shorter response time (Hedge's g = - 0.51; 95%CI = - 0.87 to - 0.15). Meta-regression demonstrated a positive correlation between maximum reward magnitude and PD rate (p < 0.04). However, significant publication bias was noted among the included studies (Egger's test, p < 0.01). In conclusion, individuals with IGD seemed more impulsive in making risky decisions, especially when the potential gains were expected. Our findings not only supported the use of PD for assessing individuals with IGD but may also provide new insights into appropriate interventions.

Monetary Reward Discounting, Inhibitory Control, and Trait Impulsivity in Young Adults With Internet Gaming Disorder and Nicotine Dependence

Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) has been considered a potential behavioral or non-substance addiction that requires further investigation. Recognition of the commonalities between IGD and Substance Use disorders (SUD) would be of great help to better understand the basic mechanisms of addictive behaviors and excessive Internet gaming. However, little research has targeted a straightforward contrast between IGD and SUD on neuropsychological aspects. The present study thus aimed to explore the associations of reward processing and inhibitory control with IGD and nicotine dependence (ND) in young adults. Fifty-eight IGD and 53 ND individuals, as well as 57 age- and gender-matched healthy controls, were assessed with a series of measurements including the Delay-discounting Test (DDT), Probability Discounting Test (PDT), the Stroop Color-Word Task, a revised Go/No Go Task, and the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11). Multivariate analysis of variance (mANOVA) models revealed that both IGD and ND groups scored higher than healthy controls on the BIS-11 attentional, motor, and non-planning impulsiveness (Cohen's d = 0.41-1.75). Higher degrees of delay discounting on the DDT were also found in IGD and ND groups compared to healthy controls (Cohen's d = 0.53-0.69). Although IGD group did not differ from healthy controls on the PDT, ND group had a lower degree of probability discounting than healthy controls (Cohen's d = 0.55), suggesting a reduction in risk aversion. Furthermore, ND subjects showed a lower correct accuracy in the incongruent trials of the Stroop task than healthy controls (Cohen's d = 0.61). On the Go/No Go task, both IGD and ND groups had a lower correct accuracy in the No-Go trials than healthy controls (Cohen's d = 1.35-1.50), indicating compromised response inhibition. These findings suggested that IGD was linked to both anomalous reward discounting and dysfunctional inhibitory control, which was comparable with one typical SUD category (i.e., ND). This study might promote a better understanding of the pathogenesis of IGD as a potential addictive disorder similar to SUD.

Altered Reward Processing System in Internet Gaming Disorder

Converging evidence indicates that addiction involves impairment in reward processing systems. However, the patterns of dysfunction in different stages of reward processing in internet gaming addiction remain unclear. In previous studies, individuals with internet gaming disorder were found to be impulsive and risk taking, but there is no general consensus on the relation between impulsivity and risk-taking tendencies in these individuals. The current study explored behavioral and electrophysiological responses associated with different stages of reward processing among individuals with internet gaming disorders (IGDs) with a delayed discounting task and simple gambling tasks. Compared to the healthy control (HC) group, the IGD group discounted delays more steeply and made more risky choices, irrespective of the outcome. As for the event-related potential (ERP) results, during the reward anticipation stage, IGDs had the same stimulus-preceding negativity (SPN) for both large and small choices, whereas HCs exhibited a higher SPN in large vs. small choices. During the outcome evaluation stage, IGDs exhibited a blunted feedback-related negativity for losses vs. gains. The results indicate impairment across different stages of reward processing among IGDs. Moreover, we found negative correlation between impulsivity indexed by BIS-11 and reward sensitivity indexed by SPN amplitude during anticipation stage only, indicating different neural mechanisms at different stages of reward processing. The current study helps to elucidate the behavioral and neural mechanisms of reward processing in internet gaming addiction.

Conduct problems and depressive symptoms in association with problem gambling and gaming: A systematic review

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Behavioral addictions such as gambling and gaming disorder are significant public health issues that are of increasing importance to policy makers and health care providers. Problem gambling and gaming behaviors have been identified as being associated with externalizing and internalizing problems, with theoretical models suggesting that both conduct problems and depressive symptoms may be significant risk factors in the development of problem gambling and gaming. As such, the purpose of this systematic review is to provide an overview of research identifying the relationship between conduct problems, depressive symptoms and problem gambling and gaming among adolescents and young adults.

METHODS

Systematic literature searches in accordance with PRISMA guidelines found 71 eligible studies that met the inclusion criteria, 47 for problem gambling, 23 for problem gaming and one for both problem behaviors.

RESULTS

Based on cross-sectional evidence, both problem gambling and gaming are consistently concurrently associated with conduct problems and depressive symptoms. Longitudinal evidence appears to be clearer for conduct problems as a risk factor for problem gambling, and depressive symptoms as a risk factor for problem gaming. However, both risk factors appear to increase the risk for these problem behaviors.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Results from the literature review suggest that problem gambling and gaming are associated with the presence of conduct problems and depressive symptoms, with the potential of sharing common etiological factors. Additional research is necessary to confirm these longitudinal relationships with an emphasis on investigating the interaction of both early conduct problems and depressive symptoms.

Effects of Increasing the Negativity of Implicit Outcome Expectancies on Internet Gaming Impulsivity

Outcome expectancies have been found to play important roles in addictive behaviors. Research has shown that implicit outcome expectancies (OE) were significantly correlated with Internet gaming behaviors among players with Internet gaming disorder (IGD). However, few empirical studies have further examined the relationship between implicit OE and players with IGD. This study first strengthened the implicit association between Internet games and negative outcomes using an evaluative conditioning paradigm (EC) and then examined the effects of increasing the negativity of implicit OE on Internet gaming impulsivity. Thirty-nine college students who were diagnosed as players with IGD participated in the study. Manipulation checks showed that after the EC was introduced, participants associated Internet gaming stimuli more closely with negative outcomes than with positive outcomes. After the implicit OE were effectively altered to be negative, players with IGD performed better in the delay discounting paradigm, showing a lower impulsivity with respect to Internet gaming.

Meta-analyses of the functional neural alterations in subjects with Internet gaming disorder: Similarities and differences across different paradigms

Internet gaming disorder (IGD) has become a global public health concern due to its increasing prevalence and potential negative consequences. Researchers have sought to identify which brain regions are associated with this disorder. However, inconsistent results have been reported among studies due to the heterogeneity of paradigms and subjects. The present research aimed to combine the results of individual studies to provide a more coherent and powerful explanation. By selecting 40 studies utilizing a qualified whole-brain analysis, we performed a comprehensive series of meta-analyses that employed seed-based d mapping. We divided the existing experimental paradigms into 3 categories: game-related cue-reactivity, executive control, and risk-reward-related decision-making tasks. We divided all studies into three subgroups according to their paradigms. In cue-reactivity tasks, patients with IGD exhibited significant hyperactivation in the bilateral precuneus and bilateral cingulate and significant hypoactivation in the insula, but there were no differences in the striatum. In executive control tasks, patients with IGD displayed significant hyperactivation in the right superior temporal gyrus, bilateral precuneus, bilateral cingulate, and insula and hypoactivation in the left inferior frontal gyrus. In risky decision-making paradigms, IGD patients exhibited significant hyperactivation in the left striatum, right inferior frontal gyrus, and insula and hypoactivation in the left superior frontal gyrus, left inferior frontal gyrus, and right precentral gyrus. Our study aimed to discover the similarities among all studies and to explore the uniqueness of the different paradigms. This study further confirmed the critical role of reward circuitry and executive control circuitry in IGD but not under all conditions.

Dysfunctional cognitive control and reward processing in adolescents with Internet gaming disorder

Developmental theories posit that immature cognitive control and excessive reward-seeking capacities may be a risk factor for addictive behaviors during adolescence, but the control and reward capacities have rarely been assessed experimentally in adolescents with Internet gaming disorder (IGD) simultaneously. This electrophysiological study examined inhibitory control and reward processing in adolescents with IGD during a go/no-go task and a gambling task. Behaviorally, the adolescents with IGD exhibited lower inhibitory control, as measured by the accuracy of no-go trials, and more risk seeking, as measured by the proportion of risky choices, than did the controls. Compared with the controls, the adolescents with IGD exhibited decreased no-go P3 and blunted feedback-related negativity (FRN) amplitudes following gains (gain FRN) but not losses. Thus, IGD in adolescents is potentially driven by dysfunction of the control system and the approach system rather than the avoidance system, supporting the neurobiological model of adolescent development.

Delay discounting and affective priming in individuals with negative schizotypy

Previous studies have demonstrated that patients with schizophrenia and individuals with schizotypy experience decreased anticipatory pleasure. However, it is unclear whether this decrease is contributed by altered reward processing at the proximal or distal future. In order to investigate the preference for receiving rewards in the proximal or distal future for individuals with schizophrenia spectrum disorders, individuals with either high or low levels of negative schizotypy performed a delay discounting task under positive, neutral and negative affective priming conditions. Compared with individuals with low levels of negative schizotypy, individuals with high levels of schizotypy exhibited increased delay discounting, preferring to choose immediate but smaller rewards instead of delayed but larger rewards across all three affective priming conditions. Negative affective priming elevated discounting for both groups compared with both the positive and neutral affective conditions. After dividing delayed temporal distance into the proximal and distal future, the results showed that individuals with high levels of negative schizotypy exhibited more preference for immediate but smaller rewards in the distal instead of proximal future compared with controls. Our results suggest that individuals with high levels of negative schizotypy have altered anticipatory reward processing, which is mainly attributed to alterations in representing rewards in the distal future. These findings extend the alterations in representing reward values from schizophrenia patients to schizotypal individuals, and suggest that diminished anticipatory pleasure in schizophrenia spectrum disorders may be due to changes in processing anticipatory rewards in the distal future.

Measuring facets of reward sensitivity, inhibition, and impulse control in individuals with problematic Internet use

INTRODUCTION

Problematic Internet Use (PIU) is the inability to control the amount of time spent on the Internet. Research indicates that abnormalities in reward sensitivity, sensitivity to punishment, and impulse control drive addictive behaviors such as substance abuse and gambling disorders, but it is unclear whether this is also the case in PIU.

METHODS

Behavioral tasks and scales were completed by 62 participants (32 PIU individuals and 30 no-PIU individuals) to assess reward sensitivity, sensitivity to punishment, as well as inhibitory function and impulse control. Measures administered included Go/No-Go, delay discounting, Behavioral Inhibition/Activation (BIS/BAS) scales and the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire (SPSRQ).

RESULTS

The PIU group endorsed greater reward sensitivity and punishment sensitivity as indexed by the SPSRQ. However, there were no group differences with regards to delay discounting, performance in the Go/No-Go task, or endorsement in the BIS/BAS scales.

DISCUSSION

The present study found increased reward sensitivity and sensitivity to punishment in PIU individuals, though impulse control was not observably affected. Future experimental studies are needed to inform our conceptualization of the etiology of addictive behavior as it pertains to PIU. Further investigation will aid in informing prevention and intervention efforts.

Profiles of Impulsivity in Problematic Internet Users and Cigarette Smokers

Problematic Internet use (PIU) has been gradually recognized as a mental health issue among adolescents and young students. PIU shows many similarities with substance use disorders, but the shared and distinct mechanisms underlying them are unclear. The purpose of the current study was to explore the relationships between impulsive traits and PIU as well as cigarette smoking behaviors among young adults. Two independent samples of university students (N 1 = 1281, N 2 = 1034, respectively) over 3 years were assessed with multiple measurements of impulsivity, including the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11 (BIS-11), the UPPSP Impulsive Behaviors Scale (UPPSP), and the Delay-discounting Test (DDT). Logistic regression models revealed that across the two independent samples, BIS-11 Attentional Impulsiveness was the common trait positively predicting both PIU and cigarette smoking. While BIS-11 Motor Impulsiveness as well as UPPSP Lack of Perseverance, Lack of Premeditation, and Negative Urgency were the typical traits linked to PIU as positive predictors, UPPSP Sensation Seeking was the unique trait linked to cigarette smoking as a positive predictor. These results suggested that specific dimensions of impulsivity might be concurrently implicated in PIU and cigarette smoking among young adults, putatively representing important trait marks for addictive behaviors.

An Explanatory Model for the Relationship between Motivation in Sport, Victimization, and Video Game Use in Schoolchildren

(1) Background: Society is changing amazingly fast, and this is bringing about changes in the way that people spend their free time. In the 21st century, free time is increasingly spent using technological devices such as video games, thus increasing levels of sedentariness. The aim of the present study was to define an explanatory model for the problematic use of video games, physical activity, motivational climate in sports, and victimization in schoolchildren, and to analyze the relationships between these variables according to gender; (2) Methods: A total of 734 schoolchildren, of both sexes, participated in this research study. They were aged from 10 to 12 and lived in the province of Granada (Spain). The main instruments used were the questionnaires PMCSQ-2, PAQ-C, QERV, and SVS. A multigroup structural equation model was used, which had an excellent fit (χ² = 319.472; df = 72; p < 0.001; CFI = 0.962; NFI = 0.952; IFI = 0.962; RMSEA = 0.048); (3) Results: The practice of physical activity was related negatively and indirectly to the problematic use of video games ((r = −0.085, boys); (r = −0.081, girls)), and this in turn was related positively and directly to victimization ((r = 0.094, boys); (r = 0.174, girls)). Additionally, task climate was inversely related to the problematic use of video games for girls (r = −0.133), and ego climate was directly related to the use of these devices only with regard to boys (r = 0.250). (4) Conclusions: It must be noted that schoolchildren’s pathological use of video games is closely related to lower levels of physical activity. In addition, those motivational climates in sports that are oriented towards performance exacerbate this pathological behavior, which accentuates the importance of promoting motivational climates that are oriented towards tasks in schoolchildren.