Repurposing HAMI3379 to Block GPR17 and Promote Rodent and Human Oligodendrocyte Differentiation

G Protein-Coupled Receptor 17 Inhibits Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Secretion via a Gi/o-Dependent Mechanism in Enteroendocrine Cells

Gut peptides, including glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), regulate metabolic homeostasis and have emerged as the basis for multiple state-of-the-art diabetes and obesity therapies. We previously showed that G protein-coupled receptor 17 (GPR17) is expressed in intestinal enteroendocrine cells (EECs) and modulates nutrient-induced GLP-1 secretion. However, the GPR17-mediated molecular signaling pathways in EECs have yet to be fully deciphered. Here, we expressed the human GPR17 long isoform (hGPR17L) in GLUTag cells, a murine EEC line, and we used the GPR17 synthetic agonist MDL29,951 together with pharmacological probes and genetic approaches to quantitatively assess the contribution of GPR17 signaling to GLP-1 secretion. Constitutive hGPR17L activity inhibited GLP-1 secretion, and MDL29,951 treatment further inhibited this secretion, which was attenuated by treatment with the GPR17 antagonist HAMI3379. MDL29,951 promoted both Gi/o and Gq protein coupling to mediate cyclic AMP (cAMP) and calcium signaling. hGPR17L regulation of GLP-1 secretion appeared to be Gq-independent and dependent upon Gi/o signaling, but was not correlated with MDL29,951-induced whole-cell cAMP signaling. Our studies revealed key signaling mechanisms underlying the role of GPR17 in regulating GLP-1 secretion and suggest future opportunities for pharmacologically targeting GPR17 with inverse agonists to maximize GLP-1 secretion.

G protein-coupled receptor 17 inhibits glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion via a Gi/o-dependent mechanism in enteroendocrine cells

Gut peptides, including glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), regulate metabolic homeostasis and have emerged as the basis for multiple state-of-the-art diabetes and obesity therapies. We previously showed that G protein-coupled receptor 17 (GPR17) is expressed in intestinal enteroendocrine cells (EECs) and modulates nutrient-induced GLP-1 secretion. However, the GPR17-mediated molecular signaling pathways in EECs have yet to be fully deciphered. Here, we expressed the human GPR17 long isoform (hGPR17L) in GLUTag cells, a murine EEC line, and we used the GPR17 synthetic agonist MDL29,951 together with pharmacological probes and genetic approaches to quantitatively assess the contribution of GPR17 signaling to GLP-1 secretion. Constitutive hGPR17L activity inhibited GLP-1 secretion, and MDL29,951 treatment further inhibited this secretion, which was attenuated by treatment with the GPR17 antagonist HAMI3379. MDL29,951 promoted both Gi/o and Gq protein coupling to mediate cyclic AMP (cAMP) and calcium signaling. hGPR17L regulation of GLP-1 secretion was Gq-independent and dependent upon Gi/o signaling, but was not correlated with MDL29,951-induced whole-cell cAMP signaling. Our studies revealed key signaling mechanisms underlying the role of GPR17 in regulating GLP-1 secretion and suggest future opportunities for pharmacologically targeting GPR17 with inverse agonists to maximize GLP-1 secretion.

GPR17 modulates anxiety-like behaviors via basolateral amygdala to ventral hippocampal CA1 glutamatergic projection

Anxiety disorders are one of the most epidemic and chronic psychiatric disorders. An incomplete understanding of anxiety pathophysiology has limited the development of highly effective drugs against these disorders. GPR17 has been shown to be involved in multiple sclerosis and some acute brain injury disorders. However, no study has investigated the role of GPR17 in psychiatric disorders. In a well-established chronic restraint stress (CRS) mouse model, using a combination of pharmacological and molecular biology techniques, viral tracing, in vitro electrophysiology recordings, in vivo fiber photometry, chemogenetic manipulations and behavioral tests, we demonstrated that CRS induced anxiety-like behaviors and increased the expression of GPR17 in basolateral amygdala (BLA) glutamatergic neurons. Inhibition of GPR17 by cangrelor or knockdown of GPR17 by adeno-associated virus in BLA glutamatergic neurons effectively improved anxiety-like behaviors. Overexpression of GPR17 in BLA glutamatergic neurons increased the susceptibility to anxiety-like behaviors. What's more, BLA glutamatergic neuronal activity was required for anxiolytic-like effects of GPR17 antagonist and GPR17 modulated anxiety-like behaviors via BLA to ventral hippocampal CA1 glutamatergic projection. Our study finds for the first and highlights the new role of GPR17 in regulating anxiety-like behaviors and it might be a novel potential target for therapy of anxiety disorders.

Buyang huanwu decoction promotes remyelination via miR-760-3p/GPR17 axis after intracerebral hemorrhage

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The repairment of myelin sheaths is crucial for mitigating neurological impairments of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). However, the current research on remyelination processes in ICH remains limited. A representative traditional Chinese medicine, Buyang Huanwu decoction (BYHWD), shows a promising therapeutic strategy for ICH treatment.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the pro-remyelination effects of BYHWD on ICH and explore the underlying mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The collagenase-induced mice ICH model was created for investigation. BYHWD's protective effects were assessed by behavioral tests and histological staining. Transmission electron microscopy was used for displaying the structure of myelin sheaths. The remyelination and oligodendrocyte differentiation were evaluated by the expressions of myelin proteolipid protein (PLP), myelin basic protein (MBP), MBP/TAU, Olig2/CC1, and PDGFRα/proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) through RT-qPCR and immunofluorescence. Transcriptomics integrated with disease database analysis and experiments in vivo and in vitro revealed the microRNA-related underlying mechanisms.

RESULTS

Here, we reported that BYHWD promoted the neurological function of ICH mice and improved remyelination by increasing PLP, MBP, and TAU, as well as restoring myelin structure. Besides, we showed that BYHWD promoted remyelination by boosting the differentiation of PDGFRα+ oligodendrocyte precursor cells into olig2+/CC1+ oligodendrocytes. Additionally, we demonstrated that the remyelination effects of BYHWD worked by inhibiting G protein-coupled receptor 17 (GPR17). miRNA sequencing integrated with miRNA database prediction screened potential miRNAs targeting GPR17. By applying immunofluorescence, RNA in situ hybridization and dual luciferase reporter gene assay, we confirmed that BYHWD suppressed GPR17 and improved remyelination by increasing miR-760-3p.

CONCLUSIONS

BYHWD improves remyelination and neurological function in ICH mice by targeting miR-760-3p to inhibit GPR17. This study may shed light on the orchestration of remyelination mechanisms after ICH, thus providing novel insights for developing innovative prescriptions with brain-protective properties.

Necrostatin-1s Suppresses RIPK1-driven Necroptosis and Inflammation in Periventricular Leukomalacia Neonatal Mice

Periventricular leukomalacia (PVL), a predominant form of brain injury in preterm survivors, is characterized by hypomyelination and microgliosis and is also the major cause of long-term neurobehavioral abnormalities in premature infants. Receptor-interacting protein kinase 1 (RIPK1) plays a pivotal role in mediating cell death and inflammatory signaling cascade. However, very little is known about the potential effect of RIPK1 in PVL and the underlying mechanism. Herein, we found that the expression level of RIPK1 was drastically increased in the brain of PVL neonatal mice models, and treatment of PVL neonatal mice with Necrostatin-1s (Nec-1s), an inhibitor of RIPK1, greatly ameliorated cerebral ischemic injury, exhibiting an increase of body weights, reduction of cerebral infarct size, neuronal loss, and occurrence of necrosis-like cells, and significantly improved the long-term abnormal neurobehaviors of PVL. In addition, Nec-1s significantly suppressed hypomyelination and promoted the differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), as demonstrated by the increased expression levels of MBP and Olig2, the decreased expression level of GPR17, a significant increase in the number of CC-1-positive cells, and suppression of myelin ultrastructure impairment. Moreover, the mechanism of neuroprotective effects of Nec-1s against PVL is closely associated with its suppression of the RIPK1-mediated necrosis signaling molecules, RIPK1, PIPK3, and MLKL. More importantly, inhibition of RIPK1 could reduce microglial inflammatory injury by triggering the M1 to M2 microglial phenotype, appreciably decreasing the levels of M1 marker CD86 and increasing the levels of M2 markers Arg1 or CD206 in PVL mice. Taken together, inhibition of RIPK1 markedly ameliorates the brain injury and long-term neurobehavioral abnormalities of PVL mice through the reduction of neural cell necroptosis and reversing neuroinflammation.

Inhibition of GPR17/ID2 Axis Improve Remyelination and Cognitive Recovery after SAH by Mediating OPC Differentiation in Rat Model

Myelin sheath injury contributes to cognitive deficits following subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). G protein-coupled receptor 17 (GPR17), a membrane receptor, negatively regulates oligodendrocyte precursor cell (OPC) differentiation in both developmental and pathological contexts. Nonetheless, GPR17's role in modulating OPC differentiation, facilitating remyelination post SAH, and its interaction with downstream molecules remain elusive. In a rat SAH model induced by arterial puncture, OPCs expressing GPR17 proliferated prominently by day 14 post-onset, coinciding with compromised myelin sheath integrity and cognitive deficits. Selective Gpr17 knockdown in oligodendrocytes (OLs) via adeno-associated virus (AAV) administration revealed that reduced GPR17 levels promoted OPC differentiation, restored myelin sheath integrity, and improved cognitive deficits by day 14 post-SAH. Moreover, GPR17 knockdown attenuated the elevated expression of the inhibitor of DNA binding 2 (ID2) post-SAH, suggesting a GPR17-ID2 regulatory axis. Bi-directional modulation of ID2 expression in OLs using AAV unveiled that elevated ID2 counteracted the restorative effects of GPR17 knockdown. This resulted in hindered differentiation, exacerbated myelin sheath impairment, and worsened cognitive deficits. These findings highlight the pivotal roles of GPR17 and ID2 in governing OPC differentiation and axonal remyelination post-SAH. This study positions GPR17 as a potential therapeutic target for SAH intervention. The interplay between GPR17 and ID2 introduces a novel avenue for ameliorating cognitive deficits post-SAH.

An overall view of the most common experimental models for multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex chronic disease with an unknown etiology. It is considered an inflammatory demyelinating and neurodegenerative disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized, in most cases, by an unpredictable onset of relapse and remission phases. The disease generally starts in subjects under 40; it has a higher incidence in women and is described as a multifactorial disorder due to the interaction between genetic and environmental risk factors. Unfortunately, there is currently no definitive cure for MS. Still, therapies can modify the disease's natural history, reducing the relapse rate and slowing the progression of the disease or managing symptoms. The limited access to human CNS tissue slows down. It limits the progression of research on MS. This limit has been partially overcome over the years by developing various experimental models to study this disease. Animal models of autoimmune demyelination, such as experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and viral and toxin or transgenic MS models, represent the most significant part of MS research approaches. These models have now been complemented by ex vivo studies, using organotypic brain slice cultures and in vitro, through induced Pluripotent Stem cells (iPSCs). We will discuss which clinical features of the disorders might be reproduced and investigated in vivo, ex vivo, and in vitro in models commonly used in MS research to understand the processes behind the neuropathological events occurring in the CNS of MS patients. The primary purpose of this review is to give the reader a global view of the main paradigms used in MS research, spacing from the classical animal models to transgenic mice and 2D and 3D cultures.

Bias-force guided simulations combined with experimental validations towards GPR17 modulators identification

Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) is known to be by far the most aggressive brain tumor to affect adults. The median survival rate of GBM patient's is < 15 months, while the GBM cells aggressively develop resistance to chemo- and radiotherapy with their self-renewal capacity which suggests the pressing need to develop novel preventative measures. We have recently proved that GPR17 -an orphan G protein-coupled receptor- is highly expressed on the GBM cell surface and it has a vital role to play in the disease progression. Despite the progress made on GBM downregulation, there still remain difficulties in developing a promising modulator for GPR17, till date. Here, we have performed robust virtual screening combined with biased-force pulling molecular dynamic (MD) simulations to predict high-affinity GPR17 modulators followed by experimental validation. Initially, the database containing 1379 FDA-approved drugs were screened against the orthosteric binding pocket of the GPR17. The external bias-potentials were then applied to the screened hits during the MD simulations which enabled to predict a spectrum of rupture peak force values that were used to select four approved drugs -ZINC000003792417 (Sacubitril), ZINC000014210457 (Victrelis), ZINC000001536109 (Pralatrexate) and ZINC000003925861 (Vorapaxar)- as top hits. The hits selected turns out to demonstrate unique dissociation pathways, interaction pattern, and change in polar network over time. Subsequently the selected hits with GPR17 were measured by inhibiting the forskolin-stimulated cAMP accumulation in GBM cell lines, LN229 and SNB19. The ex vivo validations shows that Sacubitril drug can act as a full agonist, while Vorapaxar functions as a partial agonist for GPR17. The pEC₅₀ of Sacubitril was identified as 4.841 and 4.661 for LN229 and SNB19, respectively. Small interference of the RNA (siRNA)- silenced the GPR17 to further validate the targeted binding of Sacubitril with GPR17. In the current investigation, we have identified new repurposable GPR17 specific drugs which are likely to increase the opportunity to treat orphan deadly diseases.

Identification and characterization of select oxysterols as ligands for GPR17

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

G-protein coupled receptor 17 (GPR17) is an orphan receptor involved in the process of myelination, due to its ability to inhibit the maturation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) into myelinating oligodendrocytes. Despite multiple claims that the biological ligand has been identified, it remains an orphan receptor.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Seventy-seven oxysterols were screened in a cell-free [³⁵ S]GTPγS binding assay using membranes from cells expressing GPR17. The positive hits were characterized using adenosine 3',5' cyclic monophosphate (cAMP), inositol monophosphate (IP1) and calcium mobilization assays, with results confirmed in rat primary oligodendrocytes. Rat and pig brain extracts were separated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and endogenous activator(s) were identified in receptor activation assays. Gene expression studies of GPR17, and CYP46A1 (cytochrome P450 family 46 subfamily A member 1) enzymes responsible for the conversion of cholesterol into specific oxysterols, were performed using quantitative real-time PCR.

KEY RESULTS

Five oxysterols were able to stimulate GPR17 activity, including the brain cholesterol, 24(S)-hydroxycholesterol (24S-HC). A specific brain fraction from rat and pig extracts containing 24S-HC activates GPR17 in vitro. Expression of Gpr17 during mouse brain development correlates with the expression of Cyp46a1 and the levels of 24S-HC itself. Other active oxysterols have low brain concentrations below effective ranges.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Oxysterols, including but not limited to 24S-HC, could be physiological activators for GPR17 and thus potentially regulate OPC differentiation and myelination through activation of the receptor.

Neuronal ambient RNA contamination causes misinterpreted and masked cell types in brain single-nuclei datasets

Ambient RNA contamination in single-cell and single-nuclei RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) is a significant problem, but its consequences are poorly understood. Here, we show that ambient RNAs in brain snRNA-seq datasets have a nuclear or non-nuclear origin with distinct gene set signatures. Both ambient RNA signatures are predominantly neuronal, and we find that some previously annotated neuronal cell types are distinguished by ambient RNA contamination. We detect pervasive neuronal ambient RNA contamination in all glial cell types unless glia and neurons are physically separated prior to sequencing. We demonstrate that this contamination can be removed in silico and show that previous single-nuclei RNA-seq-based annotations of immature oligodendrocytes are glial nuclei contaminated with ambient RNAs. After ambient RNA removal, we detect rare, committed oligodendrocyte progenitor cells not annotated in most previous adult human brain datasets. Together, these results provide an in-depth analysis of ambient RNA contamination in brain single-nuclei datasets.

Humanized zebrafish as a tractable tool for in vivo evaluation of pro-myelinating drugs

Therapies that promote neuroprotection and axonal survival by enhancing myelin regeneration are an unmet need to prevent disability progression in multiple sclerosis. Numerous potentially beneficial compounds have originated from phenotypic screenings but failed in clinical trials. It is apparent that current cell- and animal-based disease models are poor predictors of positive treatment options, arguing for novel experimental approaches. Here we explore the experimental power of humanized zebrafish to foster the identification of pro-remyelination compounds via specific inhibition of GPR17. Using biochemical and imaging techniques, we visualize the expression of zebrafish (zf)-gpr17 during the distinct stages of oligodendrocyte development, thereby demonstrating species-conserved expression between zebrafish and mammals. We also demonstrate species-conserved function of zf-Gpr17 using genetic loss-of-function and rescue techniques. Finally, using GPR17-humanized zebrafish, we provide proof of principle for in vivo analysis of compounds acting via targeted inhibition of human GPR17. We anticipate that GPR17-humanized zebrafish will markedly improve the search for effective pro-myelinating pharmacotherapies.

The landscape of targets and lead molecules for remyelination

Remyelination, or the restoration of myelin sheaths around axons in the central nervous system, is a multi-stage repair process that remains a major need for millions of patients with multiple sclerosis and other diseases of myelin. Even into adulthood, rodents and humans can generate new myelin-producing oligodendrocytes, leading to the therapeutic hypothesis that enhancing remyelination could lessen disease burden in multiple sclerosis. Multiple labs have used phenotypic screening to identify dozens of drugs that enhance oligodendrocyte formation, and several hit molecules have now advanced to clinical evaluation. Target identification studies have revealed that a large majority of these hits share the ability to inhibit a narrow range of cholesterol pathway enzymes and thereby induce cellular accumulation of specific sterol precursors to cholesterol. This Perspective surveys the recent fruitful intersection of chemical biology and remyelination and suggests multiple approaches toward new targets and lead molecules to promote remyelination.

The Multifaceted Role of GPCRs in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: A New Therapeutic Perspective?

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a degenerating disease involving the motor neurons, which causes a progressive loss of movement ability, usually leading to death within 2 to 5 years from the diagnosis. Much effort has been put into research for an effective therapy for its eradication, but still, no cure is available. The only two drugs approved for this pathology, Riluzole and Edaravone, are onlyable to slow down the inevitable disease progression. As assessed in the literature, drug targets such as protein kinases have already been extensively examined as potential drug targets for ALS, with some molecules already in clinical trials. Here, we focus on the involvement of another very important and studied class of biological entities, G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), in the onset and progression of ALS. This workaimsto give an overview of what has been already discovered on the topic, providing useful information and insights that can be used by scientists all around the world who are putting efforts into the fight against this very important neurodegenerating disease.

Activation of A2B adenosine receptor protects against demyelination in a mouse model of schizophrenia

The purpose of the present study was to explore the effects of A_2B adenosine receptor (A_2BAR) on learning, memory and demyelination in a dizocilpine maleate (MK-801)-induced mouse model of schizophrenia (SCZ). BAY 60-6583, an agonist of A_2BAR, or PSB 603, an antagonist of A_2BAR, was used to treat SCZ in this model. The Morris Water Maze (MWM) was utilized to determine changes in cognitive function. Moreover, western blotting, immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence were conducted to investigate the myelination and oligodendrocyte (OL) alterations at differentiation and maturation stages. The MWM results showed that learning and memory were impaired in SCZ mice, while subsequent treatment with BAY 60-6583 alleviated these impairments. In addition, western blot analysis revealed that myelin basic protein (MBP) and chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan 4 (NG2) expression levels were significantly decreased in MK-801-induced mice, while the expression of G protein-coupled receptor 17 (GPR17) was increased. Additionally, the number of anti-adenomatous polyposis coli clone CC-1/OL transcription factor 2 (CC-1⁺/Olig2⁺) cells was also decreased. Notably, BAY 60-6583 administration could reverse these changes, resulting in a significant increase in MBP and NG2 protein expression, and in the number of CC-1⁺/Olig2⁺ cells, while GPR17 protein expression levels were decreased. The present study indicated that the selective activation of A_2BAR using BAY 60-6583 could improve the impaired learning and memory of SCZ mice, as well as protect the myelin sheath from degeneration by regulating the survival and maturation of OLs.

Intestinal Gpr17 deficiency improves glucose metabolism by promoting GLP-1 secretion

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in intestinal enteroendocrine cells (EECs) respond to nutritional, neural, and microbial cues and modulate the release of gut hormones. Here we show that Gpr17, an orphan GPCR, is co-expressed in glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)-expressing EECs in human and rodent intestinal epithelium. Acute genetic ablation of Gpr17 in intestinal epithelium improves glucose tolerance and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). Importantly, inducible knockout (iKO) mice and Gpr17 null intestinal organoids respond to glucose or lipid ingestion with increased secretion of GLP-1, but not the other incretin glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP). In an in vitro EEC model, overexpression or agonism of Gpr17 reduces voltage-gated calcium currents and decreases cyclic AMP (cAMP) production, and these are two critical factors regulating GLP-1 secretion. Together, our work shows that intestinal Gpr17 signaling functions as an inhibitory pathway for GLP-1 secretion in EECs, suggesting intestinal GPR17 is a potential target for diabetes and obesity intervention.

Yan et al. locate GPR17 expression in the enteroendocrine cells of human and rodent intestinal epithelium. They find that GPR17 signaling inhibits intracellular rise of cAMP and calcium and that loss of intestinal Gpr17 in rodents leads to better glucose tolerance via increased hormone secretion in response to nutrient ingestion.

Oligodendrocyte Development and Implication in Perinatal White Matter Injury

Perinatal white matter injury (WMI) is the most common brain injury in premature infants and can lead to life-long neurological deficits such as cerebral palsy. Preterm birth is typically accompanied by inflammation and hypoxic-ischemic events. Such perinatal insults negatively impact maturation of oligodendrocytes (OLs) and cause myelination failure. At present, no treatment options are clinically available to prevent or cure WMI. Given that arrested OL maturation plays a central role in the etiology of perinatal WMI, an increased interest has emerged regarding the functional restoration of these cells as potential therapeutic strategy. Cell transplantation and promoting endogenous oligodendrocyte function are two potential options to address this major unmet need. In this review, we highlight the underlying pathophysiology of WMI with a specific focus on OL biology and their implication for the development of new therapeutic targets.

Recent trends in artificial intelligence-driven identification and development of anti-neurodegenerative therapeutic agents

Neurological disorders affect various aspects of life. Finding drugs for the central nervous system is a very challenging and complex task due to the involvement of the blood-brain barrier, P-glycoprotein, and the drug's high attrition rates. The availability of big data present in online databases and resources has enabled the emergence of artificial intelligence techniques including machine learning to analyze, process the data, and predict the unknown data with high efficiency. The use of these modern techniques has revolutionized the whole drug development paradigm, with an unprecedented acceleration in the central nervous system drug discovery programs. Also, the new deep learning architectures proposed in many recent works have given a better understanding of how artificial intelligence can tackle big complex problems that arose due to central nervous system disorders. Therefore, the present review provides comprehensive and up-to-date information on machine learning/artificial intelligence-triggered effort in the brain care domain. In addition, a brief overview is presented on machine learning algorithms and their uses in structure-based drug design, ligand-based drug design, ADMET prediction, de novo drug design, and drug repurposing. Lastly, we conclude by discussing the major challenges and limitations posed and how they can be tackled in the future by using these modern machine learning/artificial intelligence approaches.

Oligodendrocyte Dysfunction in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Perspectives

Myelin is the lipid-rich structure formed by oligodendrocytes (OLs) that wraps the axons in multilayered sheaths, assuring protection, efficient saltatory signal conduction and metabolic support to neurons. In the last few years, the impact of OL dysfunction and myelin damage has progressively received more attention and is now considered to be a major contributing factor to neurodegeneration in several neurological diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Upon OL injury, oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) of adult nervous tissue sustain the generation of new OLs for myelin reconstitution, but this spontaneous regeneration process fails to successfully counteract myelin damage. Of note, the functions of OPCs exceed the formation and repair of myelin, and also involve the trophic support to axons and the capability to exert an immunomodulatory role, which are particularly relevant in the context of neurodegeneration. In this review, we deeply analyze the impact of dysfunctional OLs in ALS pathogenesis. The possible mechanisms underlying OL degeneration, defective OPC maturation, and impairment in energy supply to motor neurons (MNs) have also been examined to provide insights on future therapeutic interventions. On this basis, we discuss the potential therapeutic utility in ALS of several molecules, based on their remyelinating potential or capability to enhance energy metabolism.

Strategies for Oligodendrocyte and Myelin Repair in Traumatic CNS Injury

A major consequence of traumatic brain and spinal cord injury is the loss of the myelin sheath, a cholesterol-rich layer of insulation that wraps around axons of the nervous system. In the central nervous system (CNS), myelin is produced and maintained by oligodendrocytes. Damage to the CNS may result in oligodendrocyte cell death and subsequent loss of myelin, which can have serious consequences for functional recovery. Demyelination impairs neuronal function by decelerating signal transmission along the axon and has been implicated in many neurodegenerative diseases. After a traumatic injury, mechanisms of endogenous remyelination in the CNS are limited and often fail, for reasons that remain poorly understood. One area of research focuses on enhancing this endogenous response. Existing techniques include the use of small molecules, RNA interference (RNAi), and monoclonal antibodies that target specific signaling components of myelination for recovery. Cell-based replacement strategies geared towards replenishing oligodendrocytes and their progenitors have been utilized by several groups in the last decade as well. In this review article, we discuss the effects of traumatic injury on oligodendrocytes in the CNS, the lack of endogenous remyelination, translational studies in rodent models promoting remyelination, and finally human clinical studies on remyelination in the CNS after injury.

Development of the first in vivo GPR17 ligand through an iterative drug discovery pipeline: A novel disease-modifying strategy for multiple sclerosis

The GPR17 receptor, expressed on oligodendroglial precursors (OPCs, the myelin producing cells), has emerged as an attractive target for a pro-myelinating strategy in multiple sclerosis (MS). However, the proof-of-concept that selective GPR17 ligands actually exert protective activity in vivo is still missing. Here, we exploited an iterative drug discovery pipeline to prioritize novel and selective GPR17 pro-myelinating agents out of more than 1,000,000 compounds. We first performed an in silico high-throughput screening on GPR17 structural model to identify three chemically-diverse ligand families that were then combinatorially exploded and refined. Top-scoring compounds were sequentially tested on reference pharmacological in vitro assays with increasing complexity, ending with myelinating OPC-neuron co-cultures. Successful ligands were filtered through in silico simulations of metabolism and pharmacokinetics, to select the most promising hits, whose dose and ability to target the central nervous system were then determined in vivo. Finally, we show that, when administered according to a preventive protocol, one of them (named by us as galinex) is able to significantly delay the onset of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a mouse model of MS. This outcome validates the predictivity of our pipeline to identify novel MS-modifying agents.

Abnormal Upregulation of GPR17 Receptor Contributes to Oligodendrocyte Dysfunction in SOD1 G93A Mice

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive loss of motor neurons (MN). Importantly, MN degeneration is intimately linked to oligodendrocyte dysfunction and impaired capacity of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) to regenerate the myelin sheath enwrapping and protecting neuronal axons. Thus, improving OPC reparative abilities represents an innovative approach to counteract MN loss. A pivotal regulator of OPC maturation is the P2Y-like G protein-coupled receptor 17 (GPR17), whose role in ALS has never been investigated. In other models of neurodegeneration, an abnormal increase of GPR17 has been invariably associated to myelin defects and its pharmacological manipulation succeeded in restoring endogenous remyelination. Here, we analyzed GPR17 alterations in the SOD1^G93A ALS mouse model and assessed in vitro whether this receptor could be targeted to correct oligodendrocyte alterations. Western-blot and immunohistochemical analyses showed that GPR17 protein levels are significantly increased in spinal cord of ALS mice at pre-symptomatic stage; this alteration is exacerbated at late symptomatic phases. Concomitantly, mature oligodendrocytes degenerate and are not successfully replaced. Moreover, OPCs isolated from spinal cord of SOD1^G93A mice display defective differentiation compared to control cells, which is rescued by treatment with the GPR17 antagonist montelukast. These data open novel therapeutic perspectives for ALS management.

Regulation and signaling of the GPR17 receptor in oligodendroglial cells

Remyelination, namely, the formation of new myelin sheaths around denuded axons, counteracts axonal degeneration and restores neuronal function. Considerable advances have been made in understanding this regenerative process that often fails in diseases like multiple sclerosis, leaving axons demyelinated and vulnerable to damage, thus contributing to disease progression. The identification of the membrane receptor GPR17 on a subset of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), which mediate remyelination in the adult central nervous system (CNS), has led to a huge amount of evidence that validated this receptor as a new attractive target for remyelinating therapies. Here, we summarize the role of GPR17 in OPC function, myelination and remyelination, describing its atypical pharmacology, its downstream signaling, and the genetic and epigenetic factors modulating its activity. We also highlight crucial insights into GPR17 pathophysiology coming from the demonstration that oligodendrocyte injury, associated with inflammation in chronic neurodegenerative conditions, is invariably characterized by abnormal and persistent GPR17 upregulation, which, in turn, is accompanied by a block of OPCs at immature premyelinating stages. Finally, we discuss the current literature in light of the potential exploitment of GPR17 as a therapeutic target to promote remyelination.

GPR17 is an essential regulator for the temporal adaptation of sonic hedgehog signalling in neural tube development

Dorsal-ventral pattern formation of the neural tube is regulated by temporal and spatial activities of extracellular signalling molecules. Sonic hedgehog (Shh) assigns ventral neural subtypes via activation of the Gli transcription factors. Shh activity in the neural progenitor cells changes dynamically during differentiation, but the mechanisms regulating this dynamicity are not fully understood. Here, we show that temporal change of intracellular cAMP levels confers the temporal Shh signal, and the purinergic G-protein-coupled receptor GPR17 plays an essential role in this regulation. GPR17 is highly expressed in the ventral progenitor regions of the neural tube and acts as a negative regulator of the Shh signal in chick embryos. Although the activation of the GPR17-related signal inhibits ventral identity, perturbation of Gpr17 expression leads to aberrant expansion of ventral neural domains. Notably, perturbation of Gpr17 expression partially inhibits the negative feedback of Gli activity. Moreover, GPR17 increases cAMP activity, suggesting that it exerts its function by inhibiting the processing of Gli3 protein. GPR17 also negatively regulates Shh signalling in neural cells differentiated from mouse embryonic stem cells, suggesting that GPR17 function is conserved among different organisms. Our results demonstrate that GPR17 is a novel negative regulator of Shh signalling in a wide range of cellular contexts.

Label-free dynamic mass redistribution analysis of endogenous adrenergic receptor signaling in primary preadipocytes and differentiated adipocytes

INTRODUCTION

Adipose tissues release adipokines, which regulate energy intake and expenditure. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and associated signaling pathways in adipocytes are potentially important drug targets for conditions with disturbed energy metabolism.

METHODS

The aim of the current study was to compare signaling of endogenously expressed GPCRs between primary preadipocytes and differentiated adipocytes using a novel state-of-the-art unbiased method that measures dynamic mass redistribution (DMR) in real-time. Adrenergic agonists were chosen since they control adipocyte functions such as lipolysis and glycogenolysis.

RESULTS

Isoprenaline (ISO) and phenylephrine (PE) elicited concentration-dependent responses in preadipocytes and differentiated adipocytes. The effect of ISO was cholera toxin (CTX)-sensitive, indicating it is G_s-dependent. The effect could also be blocked by propranolol proving the signal is mediated through β-adrenergic receptors. The signaling resulting from PE stimulation was completely abolished by the G_q/11-selective inhibitor FR900359 and CTX in preadipocytes but surprisingly became FR900359-insensitive but remained CTX-sensitive in differentiated adipocytes. The use of prazosin and propranolol revealed that the PE-response in differentiated adipocytes had a β-adrenergic receptor component to it. In addition, we tested the bone-derived peptide osteocalcin, which did not result in DMR changes in preadipocytes or differentiated adipocytes.

DISCUSSION

In conclusion, this study for the first time demonstrates that DMR assays can be used to assess signaling in differentiated adipocytes. This platform can serve as a tool for future drug screening in primary adipocytes. Furthermore, this study illustrates that PE-induced effects on adipocytes vary by developmental stage and are not as selective as originally thought.

Label-Free Whole Cell Biosensing for High-Throughput Discovery of Activators and Inhibitors Targeting G Protein-Activated Inwardly Rectifying Potassium Channels

Dynamic mass redistribution (DMR) and cellular dielectric spectroscopy (CDS) are label-free biosensor technologies that capture real-time integrated cellular responses upon exposure to extra- and intracellular stimuli. They register signaling routes that are accompanied by cell shape changes and/or molecular movement of cells proximal to the biosensor to which they are attached. Here, we report the unexpected observation that robust DMR and CDS signatures are also elicited upon direct stimulation of G protein-activated inwardly rectifying potassium (GIRK) channels, which are involved in the regulation of excitability in the heart and brain. Using ML297, a small-molecule GIRK activator, along with channel blockers and cytoskeletal network inhibitors, we found that GIRK activation exerts its effects on cell shape by a mechanism which depends on actin but not the microtubule network. Because label-free real-time biosensing (i) quantitatively determines concentration dependency of GIRK activators, (ii) accurately assesses the impact of GIRK channel blockers, (iii) is high throughput-compatible, and (iv) visualizes previously unknown cellular consequences downstream of direct GIRK activation, we do not only provide a novel experimental strategy for identification of GIRK ligands but also an entirely new angle to probe GIRK (ligand) biology. We envision that DMR and CDS may add to the repertoire of technologies for systematic exploitation of ion channel function and, in turn, to the identification of novel GIRK ligands in order to treat cardiovascular and neurological disorders.