Reactivity of Pd/Fe bimetallic nanotubes in dechlorination of coplanar polychlorinated biphenyls

Recent advances in bimetallic nanoscale zero-valent iron composite for water decontamination: Synthesis, modification and mechanisms

The environmental pollution of water is one of the problems that have plagued human society. The bimetallic nanoscale zero-valent iron (BnZVI) technology has increased wide attention owing to its high performance for water treatment and soil remediation. In recent years, the BnZVI technology based on the development of nZVI has been further developed. The material chemistry, synthesis methods, and immobilization or surface stabilization of bimetals are discussed. Further, the data of BnZVI (Fe/Ni, Fe/Cu, Fe/Pd) articles that have been studied more frequently in the last decade are summarized in terms of the types of contaminants and the number of research literatures on the same contaminants. Five contaminants including trichloroethylene (TCE), Decabromodi-phenyl Ether (BDE209), chromium (Cr(VI)), nitrate and 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP) were selected for in-depth discussion on their influencing factors and removal or degradation mechanisms. Herein, comprehensive views towards mechanisms of BnZVI applications including adsorption, hydrodehalogenation and reduction are provided. Particularly, some ambiguous concepts about formation of micro progenitor cell, production of hydrogen radicals (H·) and H2 and the electron transfer are highlighted. Besides, in-depth discussion of selectivity for N2 from nitrates and co-precipitation of chromium are emphasized. The difference of BnZVI is also discussed.

Experimental study of catalytic hydro-dechlorination (HDC) of Aroclor 1232

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) is a group of persistent organic pollutants that still requires remediation and reduction long after the production is discontinued. Aroclor 1232 is a commercial PCB mixture that has been much less studied. To address this void, this paper presented catalytic hydro-dechlorination (HDC) of Aroclor 1232 using palladium on activated carbon (Pd/AC) at atmospheric pressure. Experimental variables studied including three mild temperatures, 22.5 °C, 50 °C, and 80 °C, and four different co-catalyst loadings. This batch of Aroclor 1232 constituted of more than 83% of mono-, di-, and tri-, chlorinated biphenyls (CB), in addition to biphenyl, tetra- and penta CBs. HDC efficiency increased with temperature, and reached 99.9% within 4 h of reaction at 80 °C. HDC efficiency also increased with co-catalyst loading. HDC efficiencies followed the trend of para > meta > ortho positions among isomers. The increase of temperature and Et3N dosage are especially effective in dechlorination at ortho and meta positions. The apparent activation energy of Aroclor 1232 HDC was estimated as 25.57 kJ/mol based on pseudo-first order assumption, indicating that the reaction may be diffusion limited. Given the modest reaction conditions used, the HDC of Aroclor 1232 can potentially be a low-cost process.

Sequential-Dependent Synthesis of Bimetallic Silver-Chromium Nanoparticles for Multichannel Sensing, Logic Computing, and 3 in 1 Information Protection

Bimetallic nanomaterials (BNMs) have been used in sensing, biomedicine, and environmental remediation, but their multipurpose and comprehensive applications in molecular logic computing and information security protection have received little attention. Herein, This synthesis method is achieved by sequentially adding reactants under ice bath conditions. Interestingly, Ag-Cr NPs can dynamically selectively sense anions and reductants in multiple channels. Especially, ClO^- can be quantitatively detected by oxidizing Ag-Cr NPs with detection limits of 98.37 nM (at 270 nm) and 31.83 nM (at 394 nm). Based on sequential-dependent synthesis process of Ag-Cr NPs, Boolean logic gates and customizable molecular keypad locks are constructed by setting the reactants as the inputs, the states of the resulting solutions as the outputs. Furthermore, dynamically selective response patterns of the Ag-Cr NPs can be converted into binary strings to exploit molecular crypto-steganography to encode, store, and hide information. By integrating the three dimensions of authorization, encryption, and steganography, 3 in 1 advanced information protection based on Ag-Cr nanosensing system can be achieved, which can enhance the anti-cracking ability of information. This research will promote the development and application of nanocomposites in the field of information security and deepen the connection between molecular sensing and the information world.

Recent Advances of Emerging Organic Pollutants Degradation in Environment by Non-Thermal Plasma Technology: A Review

Emerging organic pollutants (EOPs), including endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs), pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), and persistent organic pollutants (POPs), constitute a problem in the environmental field as they are difficult to completely degrade by conventional treatment methods. Non-thermal plasma technology is a novel advanced oxidation process, which combines the effects of free radical oxidation, ozone oxidation, ultraviolet radiation, shockwave, etc. This paper summarized and discussed the research progress of non-thermal plasma remediation of EOPs-contaminated water and soil. In addition, the reactive species in the process of non-thermal plasma degradation of EOPs were summarized, and the degradation pathways and degradation mechanisms of EOPs were evaluated of selected EOPs for different study cases. At the same time, the effect of non-thermal plasma in synergy with other techniques on the degradation of EOPs in the environment was evaluated. Finally, the bottleneck problems of non-thermal plasma technology are summarized, and some suggestions for the future development of non-thermal plasma technology in the environmental remediation were presented. This review contributes to our better understanding of non-thermal plasma technology for remediation of EOPs-contaminated water and soil, hoping to provide reference for relevant practitioners.

A catalyzed method to remove polychlorinated biphenyls from contaminated transformer oil

The disposal of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) as persistent organic pollutants from the environment has been normally performed by isolation from soil or water because of their biological activity and toxic potential. In the present investigation, catalytic hydrodehalogenation was used to detoxify PCBs-contaminated transformer oil. All reactions were directed on an oil containing 11.09 wt% of PCBs utilizing palladium supported on multi-walled carbon nanotubes (Pd/MWCNTs). The amount of hexa-chlorine homologues reduced considerably from 5.07% to less than 800 ppm utilizing HDC at the atmosphere of argon. Moreover, the amounts of long half-lives and bioaccumulative congener of PCB 153 decreased considerably from 3.2% to less than 200 ppm. Besides, the quantity of some environmental pollutants like PCB 105 as a mono-ortho-substituted congener decreased considerably. The significant effects of reaction time, reaction temperature, and catalyst concentration on the efficiency were confirmed and modeled through Box-Behnken design. The optimal reaction condition with an efficiency of 96.67% was 70°C, with catalyst loading of 8 wt% and reaction time of 3.23 h. Furthermore, the quantity of turnover frequency of Pd/MWCNTs showed that it has more activity than palladium-carbon active supported in the ambient pressure without utilizing hydrogen gas in transformer oil complex. The study of the kinetic model revealed that the required activation energy (of 12.99 kJ/mol) to remove PCBs from transformer oil utilizing the present catalyst was lower than other catalyzed hydrodechlorination methods.

Highly efficient debromination of 4,4'-dibrominated diphenyl ether by organic palygorskite-supported Pd/Fe nanoparticles

Organic palygorskite (OP)-supported Pd/Fe nanoparticles composite (OP-Pd/Fe) was prepared by stepwise reduction method. The removal capacity of 4,4'-dibrominated diphenyl ether (BDE15) by OP-Pd/Fe was compared with other various materials. For better understanding the possible mechanism, the synthesized and reacted OP-Pd/Fe materials were characterized by TEM, SEM, XRD, and XPS, respectively. The effects of major influencing parameters on the degradation of BDE15 were also studied. Benefit from the synergistic effect of the carrier and bimetallic nanoparticles, BDE15 could be completely debrominated into diphenyl ether (DE) under suitable conditions. A two-stage adsorption/debromination removal mechanism was proposed. The degradation of BDE15 with OP-Pd/Fe was mainly stepwise debromination reaction, and hydrogen transfer mode was assumed as the dominated debromination mechanism. The removal process fitted well to the pseudo first-order kinetic equation. The observed rate constants increased with increasing Pd loading and OP-Pd/Fe dosage while decreased with increasing initial BDE15 concentration, the tetrahydrofuran/water ratio, and the initial pH of the solution. The work provides a new approach for the treatment of PBDEs pollution.

Degradation of 3,3',4,4'-tetrachlorobiphenyl (PCB77) by dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) non-thermal plasma: Degradation mechanism and toxicity evaluation

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a kind of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) with stable chemical properties which can be enriched in a biological body for a long time. They are often carelessly released into natural environment and thus constantly posing a potential threat to human health. However, because of lack of effective ways of degrading PCBs, researchers are still striving to explore new approaches to remove them from the environment. In this work, we employed atmospheric-pressure non-thermal dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma to treat 3,3',4,4'-tetrachlorobiphenyl (PCB77) in aqueous solution and investigated the removal efficiency under different DBD conditions using different discharging gases. As a result, we showed that He-DBD had the highest removal efficiency with hydroxyl radical playing the major role in the degradation, while O₂-DBD also gave rise to relatively high efficiency with ozone making an important contribution. After 2 min of treatments by He-DBD and O₂-DBD, over 75% of PCB77 was degraded with removal rate of 23.65 mg/L and 22.19 mg/L per minute, respectively. Besides, the toxicological evaluation for the DBD treatment was also provided, confirming that the PCB77 degradation products had negligible biotoxicity. This work therefore provides a new effective approach to treatment of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the environment.

Pd/Fe nanoparticle integrated PMAA-PVDF membranes for chloro-organic remediation from synthetic and site groundwater

The poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA) was synthesized in the pores of commercial microfiltration PVDF membranes to allow incorporation of catalytic palladium/iron (Pd/Fe) nanoparticles for groundwater remediation. Particles of 17.1 ± 4.9 nm size were observed throughout the pores of membranes using a focused ion beam. To understand the role of Pd fractions and particle compositions, 2-chlorobiphenyl was used as a model compound in solution phase studies. Results show H2 production (Fe0 corrosion in water) is a function of Pd coverage on the Fe. Insufficient H2 production caused by higher coverage (> 10.4% for 5.5 wt%) hindered dechlorination rate. With 0.5 wt% Pd, palladized-Fe reaction rate (surface area normalized reaction rate, ksa = 0.12 L/(m2-h) was considerably higher than isolated Pd and Fe particles. For groundwater, in a single pass of Pd/Fe-PMAA-PVDF membranes (0.5 wt% Pd), chlorinated organics, such as trichloroethylene (177 ppb) and carbon tetrachloride (35 ppb), were degraded to 16 and 0.3 ppb, respectively, at 2.2 seconds of residence time. The degradation rate (observed ksa) followed the order of carbon tetrachloride > trichloroethylene > tetrachloroethylene > chloroform. A 36 h continuous flow study with organic mixture and the regeneration process show the potential for on-site remediation.

Understanding the electrode reaction process of dechlorination of 2,4-dichlorophenol over Ni/Fe nanoparticles: Effect of pH and 2,4-dichlorophenol concentration

Herein, with the exploitation of iron and nickel electrodes, the 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP) dechlorinating processes at the anode and cathode, respectively, were separately studied via various electrochemical techniques (e.g., Tafel polarization, linear polarization, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy). With this in mind, Ni/Fe nanoparticles were prepared by chemical solution deposition, and utilized to test the dechlorination activities of 2,4-DCP over a bimetallic system. For the iron anode, the results showed that higher 2,4-DCP concentration and solution acidity aggravated the corrosion within the electrode. The charge transfer resistance (R_ct) values of the iron electrode were 703, 473, 444, and 437 Ω∙cm² for the initial 2,4-DCP concentrations of 0, 20, 50, and 80 mg/L, respectively. When the bulk pH of the 2,4-DCP solution varied from 3.0, 5.0 to 7.0, the corresponding R_ct values were 315, 376, and 444 Ω∙cm², respectively. For the nickel cathode, the reduction current densities on the electrode at -0.75 V (vs. saturated calomel electrode) were 80, 106, and 111 μA/cm², for initial 2,4-DCP concentrations of 40, 80, and 125 mg/L. The dechlorination experiments demonstrated that when the initial pH of the solution was 7.0, 5.0, and 3.0, the dechlorination percentage of 2,4-DCP by Ni/Fe nanoparticles was 62%, 69%, and 74%, respectively, which was in line with the electrochemical experiments. 10 wt.% Ni loading into Ni/Fe bimetal was affordable and gave a good dechlorination efficiency of 2,4-DCP, and fortunately the Ni/Fe nanoparticles remained comparatively stable in the dechlorination processes at pH 3.0.

Recent advances in hexavalent chromium removal from aqueous solutions by adsorptive methods

Chromium exists mainly in two forms in environmental matrices, namely, the hexavalent (Cr(vi)) and trivalent (Cr(iii)) chromium. While Cr(iii) is a micronutrient, Cr(vi) is a known carcinogen, and that warrants removal from environmental samples. Amongst the removal techniques reported in the literature, adsorption methods are viewed as superior to other methods because they use less chemicals; consequently, they are less toxic and easy to handle. Mitigation of chromium using adsorption methods has been achieved by exploiting the physical, chemical, and biological properties of Cr(vi) due to its dissolution tendencies in aqueous solutions. Many adsorbents, including synthetic polymers, activated carbons, biomass, graphene oxide, and nanoparticles as well as bioremediation, have been successfully applied in Cr(vi) remediation. Initially, adsorbents were used singly in their natural form, but recent literature shows that more composite materials are generated and applied. This review focused on the recent advances, insights, and project future directions for these adsorbents as well as compare and contrast the performances achieved by the mentioned adsorbents and their variants.

Biochar-supported magnetic noble metallic nanoparticles for the fast recovery of excessive reductant during pollutant reduction

The catalytic reduction of diverse pollutants by noble metal catalysts in the presence of reductants is a highly effective and widely used method. However, the considerable cost of noble metal catalysts impedes the practical application of this method, and the recovery of excessive reductants has not been reported previously. In this work, we prepared inexpensive biochar-supported magnetic noble metallic nanoparticles (NPs) and efficiently recovered the excessive reductants in the form of H₂. The as-synthesized biochar-supported noble metallic NPs exhibited high H₂ recovery during the 4-nitrophenol reduction reaction. Results showed that the catalysts with low noble metallic content have higher H₂ recovery rate than commercial Pd/C, Ag/C, and Pt/C. The catalytic mechanism of magnetic biochar-supported noble metallic NPs was demonstrated to be a "synergetic effect", where biochar and Fe₃O₄ acted as accelerants that enable noble metallic NPs to produce active hydrogen for the reduction reaction, and the excess active hydrogen atoms combined to form H₂.

Recent electrochemical methods in electrochemical degradation of halogenated organics: a review

Halogenated organics are widely used in modern industry, agriculture, and medicine, and their large-scale emissions have led to soil and water pollution. Electrochemical methods are attractive and promising techniques for wastewater treatment and have been developed for degradation of halogenated organic pollutants under mild conditions. Electrochemical techniques are classified according to main reaction pathways: (i) electrochemical reduction, in which cleavage of C-X (X = F, Cl, Br, I) bonds to release halide ions and produce non-halogenated and non-toxic organics and (ii) electrochemical oxidation, in which halogenated organics are degraded by electrogenerated oxidants. The electrode material is crucial to the degradation efficiency of an electrochemical process. Much research has therefore been devoted to developing appropriate electrode materials for practical applications. This paper reviews recent developments in electrode materials for electrochemical degradation of halogenated organics. And at the end of this paper, the characteristics of new combination methods, such as photocatalysis, nanofiltration, and the use of biochemical method, are discussed.

Converting Light Energy to Chemical Energy: A New Catalytic Approach for Sustainable Environmental Remediation

We report a synthetic approach to form cubic Cu₂O/Pd composite structures and demonstrate their use as photocatalytic materials for tandem catalysis. Pd nanoparticles were deposited onto Cu₂O cubes, and their tandem catalytic reactivity was studied via the reductive dehalogenation of polychlorinated biphenyls. The Pd content of the materials was gradually increased to examine its influence on particle morphology and catalytic performance. Materials were prepared at different Pd amounts and demonstrated a range of tandem catalytic reactivity. H₂ was generated via photocatalytic proton reduction initiated by Cu₂O, followed by Pd-catalyzed dehalogenation using in situ generated H₂. The results indicate that material morphology and composition and substrate steric effects play important roles in controlling the overall reaction rate. Additionally, analysis of the postreacted materials revealed that a small number of the cubes had become hollow during the photodechlorination reaction. Such findings offer important insights regarding photocatalytic active sites and mechanisms, providing a pathway toward converting light-based energy to chemical energy for sustainable catalytic reactions not typically driven via light.

Enhanced dechlorination of m-DCB using iron@graphite/palladium (Fe@C/Pd) nanoparticles produced by pulsed laser ablation in liquid

In this work, the zero valent Fe (ZVI) and graphite-encapsulated Fe (Fe@C) nanoparticles (NPs) were easily and selectively prepared by a pulsed laser ablation (PLA) method in an aqueous sodium borohydride solution and ascorbic acid dissolved in methanol, respectively. Here, the Fe@C NPs were uniquely synthesized by PLA in methanol, where the solvent is used as both a carbon source for the graphitic layers and solvent, which is very unique. Furthermore, Pd NPs were loaded onto the surface of the Fe@C NPs to prepare bimetallic (Fe@C/Pd) NPs for the enhancement of the degradation efficiency of m-dichlorobenzene (m-DCB). The morphology, crystallinity, and surface composition of the prepared NPs were carefully characterized by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), energy dispersive x-ray spectrometer (EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The degradation rate of m-DCB using single (Fe and Pd) or bimetallic (Fe/Pd and Fe@C/Pd) NPs were compared by using gas chromatography. Among these NPs produced in this work, the Fe@C/Pd NPs with 1.71 wt % of Pd showed an excellent dechlorination efficiency for m-DCB with 100% degradation within 75 min. The graphitic layer on the Fe NPs played as not only an oxidation resistant for the Fe NPs to surroundings, but also a supporter of the Pd NPs for the enhanced degradation efficiency of m-DCB.

Dechlorination of pentachlorophenol (PCP) in aqueous solution on novel Pd-loaded electrode modified with PPy-SDBS composite film

Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is a persistent pollutant and a suspected human carcinogen. It can be found in the air, water, and soil and enters the environment through evaporation from treated wood surfaces, industrial spills, and disposal at uncontrolled hazardous waste sites. Ecotoxicity of PCP necessitates the development of rapid and reliable remediation techniques. Electrocatalytic hydrogenolysis (ECH) has been proven as a promising method for detoxification of halogenated wastes, due to its rapid reaction rate, low apparatus cost, mild reaction conditions, and absence of secondary contaminants. Challenge for the application of ECH is to prepare a Pd-coated cathode with high stability, high catalytic activity, and low Pd loading level. In this work, Pd/polypyrrole-sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate/meshed Ti (Pd/PPy-SDBS/Ti) electrode was prepared and was characterized by cyclic voltammetry, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry. Electrochemically reductive dechlorination of PCP on the Pd/PPy-SDBS/Ti electrode in aqueous solution was investigated. Pd microparticles were uniformly dispersed on PPy-SDBS film which was previously electrodeposited on the meshed Ti supporting electrode. The loading of Pd on the electrode was 0.72 mg cm(-2). Electrocatalytic dechlorination of PCP was performed in a two-compartment cell separated by cation-exchange membrane. The PCP removal on the Pd/PPy-SDBS/Ti electrode could reach 100 % within 70 min with dechlorination current 3 mA when PCP initial concentration was 10 mg L(-1) and initial pH was 2.4. Conversion of PCP on the Pd/PPy-SDBS/Ti electrode followed pseudo-first-order kinetics, and the apparent activation energy was 13.0 kJ mol(-1). The removal of PCP still kept 100 % after 70 min dechlorination when the Pd/PPy-SDBS/Ti cathode was reused ten times. The electrode exhibited promising dechlorination potential with high electrocatalytic activity, good stability, and low cost.

The use of zero-valent iron for groundwater remediation and wastewater treatment: a review

Recent industrial and urban activities have led to elevated concentrations of a wide range of contaminants in groundwater and wastewater, which affect the health of millions of people worldwide. In recent years, the use of zero-valent iron (ZVI) for the treatment of toxic contaminants in groundwater and wastewater has received wide attention and encouraging treatment efficiencies have been documented. This paper gives an overview of the recent advances of ZVI and progress obtained during the groundwater remediation and wastewater treatment utilizing ZVI (including nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI)) for the removal of: (a) chlorinated organic compounds, (b) nitroaromatic compounds, (c) arsenic, (d) heavy metals, (e) nitrate, (f) dyes, and (g) phenol. Reaction mechanisms and removal efficiencies were studied and evaluated. It was found that ZVI materials with wide availability have appreciable removal efficiency for several types of contaminants. Concerning ZVI for future research, some suggestions are proposed and conclusions have been drawn.