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Othman N, Ismail Z, Selamat MI, Sheikh Abdul Kadir SH, Shibraumalisi NA. A Review of Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) Pollution in the Air: Where and How Much Are We Exposed to? INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph192113923. [PMID: 36360801 PMCID: PMC9657815 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192113923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were widely used in industrial and commercial applications, until they were banned in the late 1970s as a result of their significant environmental pollution. PCBs in the environment gained scientific interest because of their persistence and the potential threats they pose to humans. Traditionally, human exposure to PCBs was linked to dietary ingestion. Inhalational exposure to these contaminants is often overlooked. This review discusses the occurrence and distribution of PCBs in environmental matrices and their associated health impacts. Severe PCB contamination levels have been reported in e-waste recycling areas. The occurrence of high PCB levels, notably in urban and industrial areas, might result from extensive PCB use and intensive human activity. Furthermore, PCB contamination in the indoor environment is ten-fold higher than outdoors, which may present expose risk for humans through the inhalation of contaminated air or through the ingestion of dust. In such settings, the inhalation route may contribute significantly to PCB exposure. The data on human health effects due to PCB inhalation are scarce. More epidemiological studies should be performed to investigate the inhalation dose and response mechanism and to evaluate the health risks. Further studies should also evaluate the health impact of prolonged low-concentration PCB exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naffisah Othman
- Department of Public Health Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Teknologi MARA Sungai Buloh Campus, Jalan Hospital, Sungai Buloh 47000, Malaysia
| | - Zaliha Ismail
- Department of Public Health Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Teknologi MARA Sungai Buloh Campus, Jalan Hospital, Sungai Buloh 47000, Malaysia
| | - Mohamad Ikhsan Selamat
- Department of Public Health Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Teknologi MARA Sungai Buloh Campus, Jalan Hospital, Sungai Buloh 47000, Malaysia
| | - Siti Hamimah Sheikh Abdul Kadir
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Teknologi MARA Sungai Buloh Campus, Jalan Hospital, Sungai Buloh 47000, Malaysia
| | - Nur Amirah Shibraumalisi
- Department of Primary Care Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Teknologi MARA Sungai Buloh Campus, Jalan Hospital, Sungai Buloh 47000, Malaysia
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2
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Liu X. Understanding Semi-volatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs) in Indoor Dust. INDOOR + BUILT ENVIRONMENT : THE JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT 2022; 31:291-298. [PMID: 35221787 PMCID: PMC8879700 DOI: 10.1177/1420326x211070859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Liu
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
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3
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Andersen HV, Frederiksen M. Sorption of PCB from air to settled house dust in a contaminated indoor environment. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 266:129139. [PMID: 33310521 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Investigation of human exposure pathways to PCB in a high-rise estate in Denmark motivated an experiment with sorption of PCB from air to settled house dust. Three sieved house dust samples (<75 μm) of different origin were exposed to elevated air concentrations of PCB in a vacated apartment from seven to 40 days. Within the 40 days, most of the dust samples were close to equilibrium for the congeners PCB-8 to -101 and dust-air partition coefficients were determined. The dust samples of different origin showed comparable partitioning, though small differences were seen. The determined partition coefficients were in agreement with values found in literature. Further, the partition coefficients were compared to three sets of predicted estimates based on absorption of PCB into the organic matter of the dust and octanol-air partition coefficients derived from different sources. Comparing measured and predicted values (log-log), two sets of predicted values showed strong correlation, though overestimated 20-40%, while one set showed similar absolute levels, but with a few deviating congeners. Dust-air ratios were calculated for samples taken from a field investigation in homes with elevated air concentrations of PCB in the high-rises. The partitioning in the field samples were in agreement with the results from the exposure experiment and indicate near steady state conditions for the congeners in the dust from the homes. Dust exposed directly on the floorboards showed lower concentrations than samples placed on foil, indicating an ongoing sorption to the varnish being a tertiary source contaminated by the air.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helle Vibeke Andersen
- Department of the Built Environment, Aalborg University, A. C. Meyers Vænge 15, København SV, DK-2450, Denmark.
| | - Marie Frederiksen
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lersø Parkalle 105, København Ø, DK-2100, Denmark
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4
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Bi C, Wang X, Li H, Li X, Xu Y. Direct Transfer of Phthalate and Alternative Plasticizers from Indoor Source Products to Dust: Laboratory Measurements and Predictive Modeling. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:341-351. [PMID: 33287540 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c05131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Phthalate and alternative plasticizers are semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) and among the most abundant indoor pollutants. Although ingestion of dust is one of the major exposure pathways to them, migration knowledge from source products to indoor dust is still limited. Systematic chamber measurements were conducted to investigate the direct transfer of these SVOCs between source products and dust in contact with the source. Substantial direct source-to-dust transfer of SVOCs was observed for all tests. The concentration of bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate in dust was 12 times higher than the pre-experimental level after only two days of source-dust contact. A mechanistic model was developed to predict the direct transfer process, and a reasonable agreement between model predictions and measurements was achieved. The octanol/air partition coefficient (Koa) of SVOCs, the emission parameter of the source product (y0), and the characteristics of the dust layer (i.e., porosity and thickness) control the transfer, affecting the SVOC concentration in dust, the kinetics of direct transfer, or both. Dust mass loading has a significant influence on the transfer, while relative humidity only has a limited effect. The findings suggest that minimizing the use of SVOC-containing products and house vacuuming are effective intervention strategies to reduce young children's exposure to SVOCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenyang Bi
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712-1139, United States of America
| | - Xinke Wang
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710049, China
| | - Hongwan Li
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712-1139, United States of America
| | - Xiaofeng Li
- Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Quality Evaluation and Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Ying Xu
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712-1139, United States of America
- Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Quality Evaluation and Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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5
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Eichler CMA, Hubal EAC, Xu Y, Cao J, Bi C, Weschler CJ, Salthammer T, Morrison GC, Koivisto AJ, Zhang Y, Mandin C, Wei W, Blondeau P, Poppendieck D, Liu X, Delmaar CJE, Fantke P, Jolliet O, Shin HM, Diamond ML, Shiraiwa M, Zuend A, Hopke PK, von Goetz N, Kulmala M, Little JC. Assessing Human Exposure to SVOCs in Materials, Products, and Articles: A Modular Mechanistic Framework. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:25-43. [PMID: 33319994 PMCID: PMC7877794 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c02329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
A critical review of the current state of knowledge of chemical emissions from indoor sources, partitioning among indoor compartments, and the ensuing indoor exposure leads to a proposal for a modular mechanistic framework for predicting human exposure to semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs). Mechanistically consistent source emission categories include solid, soft, frequent contact, applied, sprayed, and high temperature sources. Environmental compartments are the gas phase, airborne particles, settled dust, indoor surfaces, and clothing. Identified research needs are the development of dynamic emission models for several of the source emission categories and of estimation strategies for critical model parameters. The modular structure of the framework facilitates subsequent inclusion of new knowledge, other chemical classes of indoor pollutants, and additional mechanistic processes relevant to human exposure indoors. The framework may serve as the foundation for developing an open-source community model to better support collaborative research and improve access for application by stakeholders. Combining exposure estimates derived using this framework with toxicity data for different end points and toxicokinetic mechanisms will accelerate chemical risk prioritization, advance effective chemical management decisions, and protect public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara M A Eichler
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Elaine A Cohen Hubal
- Office of Research and Development, U.S. EPA, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, United States
| | - Ying Xu
- Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jianping Cao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, China
| | - Chenyang Bi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Charles J Weschler
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
- International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy, Department of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby 2800, Denmark
| | - Tunga Salthammer
- Fraunhofer WKI, Department of Material Analysis and Indoor Chemistry, Braunschweig 38108, Germany
| | - Glenn C Morrison
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Antti Joonas Koivisto
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
| | - Yinping Zhang
- Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Corinne Mandin
- University of Paris-Est, Scientific and Technical Center for Building (CSTB), French Indoor Air Quality Observatory (OQAI), Champs sur Marne 77447, France
| | - Wenjuan Wei
- University of Paris-Est, Scientific and Technical Center for Building (CSTB), French Indoor Air Quality Observatory (OQAI), Champs sur Marne 77447, France
| | - Patrice Blondeau
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Ingénieur pour l'Environnement - LaSIE, Université de La Rochelle, La Rochelle 77447, France
| | - Dustin Poppendieck
- Engineering Lab, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Xiaoyu Liu
- Office of Research and Development, U.S. EPA, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, United States
| | - Christiaan J E Delmaar
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Center for Safety of Substances and Products, Bilthoven 3720, The Netherlands
| | - Peter Fantke
- Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Technology, Management and Economics, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby 2800, Denmark
| | - Olivier Jolliet
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Hyeong-Moo Shin
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019, United States
| | - Miriam L Diamond
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3B1, Canada
| | - Manabu Shiraiwa
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Andreas Zuend
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A0B9, Canada
| | - Philip K Hopke
- Center for Air Resources Engineering and Science, Clarkson University, Potsdam, New York 13699-5708, United States
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York 14642, United States
| | | | - Markku Kulmala
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
| | - John C Little
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
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Kuribara I, Kajiwara N, Sakurai T, Kuramochi H, Motoki T, Suzuki G, Wada T, Sakai S, Takigami H. Time series of hexabromocyclododecane transfers from flame-retarded curtains to attached dust. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 696:133957. [PMID: 31454598 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Revised: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
While the production and new use of hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) mostly ceased after being listed as a persistent organic pollutant under the Stockholm Convention in 2013, its emission from treated products in use to indoor environments still deserves attention. To examine the transfer of HBCD diastereomers to dust on the surface of flame-retarded curtains and to better characterize the potential of treated fabrics to be sources of HBCD in dust, we carried out a series of 196-day experiments using two types of curtains and attached dusts. Concurrently, the physicochemical properties (vapor pressure, water solubility, and octanol-water partition coefficient) of the HBCD diastereomers were measured. HBCD diastereomers migrated from curtains to dust with half-saturation times of about 20-50 days. By day 196, mean HBCD concentrations in dust had reached 13-290 μg/g, depending on the types of curtains and dusts. The composition of HBCD, dominated by γ-HBCD in the curtains, was dominated by α-HBCD in the post-experiment dusts, probably because of the higher vapor pressure of α-HBCD compared to γ-HBCD. The initial HBCD contents of the two curtains were comparable, but the concentrations and profiles of HBCD diastereomers in the post-experiment dusts differed markedly, probably because differences between the texture and/or surface finishing of the treated fabrics affected HBCD transfer to the attached dust.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isamu Kuribara
- Chemicals Evaluation and Research Institute, Japan (CERI), 1600 Shimotakano, Sugito-machi, Kitakatsushika-gun, Saitama 345-0043, Japan
| | - Natsuko Kajiwara
- Center for Material Cycles and Waste Management Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan.
| | - Takeo Sakurai
- Center for Health and Environmental Risk Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
| | - Hidetoshi Kuramochi
- Center for Material Cycles and Waste Management Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Motoki
- Center for Material Cycles and Waste Management Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
| | - Go Suzuki
- Center for Material Cycles and Waste Management Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
| | - Takeharu Wada
- Chemicals Evaluation and Research Institute, Japan (CERI), 1600 Shimotakano, Sugito-machi, Kitakatsushika-gun, Saitama 345-0043, Japan
| | - Shinichi Sakai
- Kyoto University Environment Preservation Research Center, Yoshida Honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Hidetaka Takigami
- Center for Material Cycles and Waste Management Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
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7
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Tian S, Ecoff S, Sebroski J, Miller J, Rickenbacker H, Bilec M. An indoor air quality evaluation in a residential retrofit project using spray polyurethane foam. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2018; 15:363-375. [PMID: 29341859 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2018.1428332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Understanding of indoor air quality (IAQ) during and after spray polyurethane foam (SPF) application is essential to protect the health of both workers and building occupants. Previous efforts such as field monitoring, micro-chamber/spray booth emission studies, and fate/transport modeling have been conducted to understand the chemical exposure of SPF and guide risk mitigation strategies. However, each type of research has its limitation and can only reveal partial information on the relationship between SPF and IAQ. A comprehensive study is truly needed to integrate the experimental design and analytical testing methods in the field/chamber studies with the mathematical tools employed in the modeling studies. This study aims to bridge this gap and provide a more comprehensive understanding on the impact of SPF to IAQ. The field sampling plan of this research aims to evaluate the airborne concentrations of methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI), formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, tris(1-chlor-2-propyl)phosphate (TCPP), trans-1-chloro-3,3,3-trifluoropropene (SolsticeTM), and airborne particles. Modifications to existing MDI sampling and analytical methods were made so that level of quantification was improved. In addition, key fate and transport modeling input parameters such as air changes per hour and airborne particle size distribution were measured. More importantly, TCPP accumulation onto materials was evaluated, which is important to study the fate and transport of semi-volatile organic compounds. The IAQ results showed that after spray application was completed in the entire building, airborne concentrations decreased for all chemicals monitored. However, it is our recommendation that during SPF application, no one should return to the application site without proper personal protection equipment as long as there are active spray activities in the building. The comparison between this field study and a recent chamber study proved surface sorption and particle deposition is an important factor in determining the fate of airborne TCPP. The study also suggests the need for further evaluation by employing mathematical models, proving the data generated in this work as informative to industry and the broader scientific community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shen Tian
- a Covestro LLC , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania
- b Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania
| | | | | | | | - Harold Rickenbacker
- b Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania
| | - Melissa Bilec
- b Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania
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8
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Morrison GC, Andersen HV, Gunnarsen L, Varol D, Uhde E, Kolarik B. Partitioning of PCBs from air to clothing materials in a Danish apartment. INDOOR AIR 2018; 28:188-197. [PMID: 28767171 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) contamination of buildings continues to pose an exposure threat, even decades after their application in the form of calks and other building materials. In this research, we investigate the ability of clothing to sorb PCBs from contaminated air and thereby influence exposure. The equilibrium concentration of PCB-28 and PCB-52 was quantified for nine used clothing fabrics exposed for 56 days to air in a Danish apartment contaminated with PCBs. Fabric materials included pure materials such as cotton and polyester, or blends of polyester, cotton, viscose/rayon, and/or elastane. Air concentrations were fairly stable over the experimental period, with PCB-28 ranging from 350 to 430 ng/m3 and PCB-52 ranging from 460 to 550 ng/m3 . Mass accumulated in fabric ranged from below detection limits to 4.5 mg/g of fabric. Cotton or materials containing elastane sorbed more than polyester materials on a mass basis. Mass-normalized partition coefficients above detection limits ranged from 105.7 to 107.0 L/kg. Clothing acts as a reservoir for PCBs that extends dermal exposure, even when outside or in uncontaminated buildings.
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Affiliation(s)
- G C Morrison
- Missouri University of Science & Technology, Rolla, MO, USA
| | - H V Andersen
- Danish Building Research Institute, Aalborg University Copenhagen, København SV, Denmark
| | - L Gunnarsen
- Danish Building Research Institute, Aalborg University Copenhagen, København SV, Denmark
| | - D Varol
- Fraunhofer WKI, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - E Uhde
- Fraunhofer WKI, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - B Kolarik
- Danish Building Research Institute, Aalborg University Copenhagen, København SV, Denmark
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