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Choczynski JM, Shokoor B, Salazar J, Zuend A, Davies JF. Probing the evaporation dynamics of semi-volatile organic compounds to reveal the thermodynamics of liquid-liquid phase separated aerosol. Chem Sci 2024; 15:2963-2974. [PMID: 38404378 PMCID: PMC10882461 DOI: 10.1039/d3sc05164a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) is a thermodynamically driven process that occurs in mixtures of low miscibility material. LLPS is an important process in chemical, biological, and environmental systems. In atmospheric chemistry, LLPS in aerosol containing internally-mixed organic and inorganic particles has been an area of significant interest, with particles separating to form organic-rich and aqueous phases on dehydration. This alters the optical properties of the particles, has been connected to changes in the cloud nucleation ability of the aerosol, and potentially changes the reactivity of particles towards gas-phase oxidants. Although the chemical systems that undergo LLPS have become quite well-characterized, the properties and processes of LLPS particles are quite poorly understood. In this work, we characterize LLPS in aerosol particles containing ammonium sulfate and triethylene glycol (3EG), a semi-volatile organic molecule. We explore the relative humidity (RH) conditions under which LLPS occurs and characterize the rate of evaporation of 3EG from well-mixed and LLPS particles as a function of RH. We show that the evaporation rates vary with RH due to changes in chemical activity, however no clear change in the dynamics following LLPS are observed. We interpret our observations using a thermodynamic model (AIOMFAC) coupled with an evaporation model and show that a significant increase in the activity coefficient of 3EG as the RH decreases, required for LLPS to occur, obscures a clear step-change in the evaporation rates following LLPS. By characterizing the evaporation rates, we estimate the composition of the organic-rich phase and compare our results to thermodynamic predictions. This study is the first to explore the connection between LLPS and the chemical evolution of aerosol particles via the evaporation of semi-volatile organic material. Ultimately, we reveal that the thermodynamics of non-ideal mixing are primarily responsible for the controlling both the rate of evaporation and the onset of LLPS, with LLPS itself having limited impact on the rate of evaporation in a fluid system. These results have significant implications for understanding and predicting the lifetime of aerosol particles, their effect on cloud formation, and the chemical evolution of multiphase systems by particle-gas partitioning and heterogeneous reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack M Choczynski
- Department of Chemistry, University of California Riverside Riverside CA USA
| | - Bilal Shokoor
- Department of Chemistry, University of California Riverside Riverside CA USA
| | - Jorge Salazar
- Department of Chemistry, University of California Riverside Riverside CA USA
| | - Andreas Zuend
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, McGill University Montreal Quebec Canada
| | - James F Davies
- Department of Chemistry, University of California Riverside Riverside CA USA
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2
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Huang Q, Pitta KR, Constantini K, Ott EJE, Zuend A, Freedman MA. Experimental phase diagram and its temporal evolution for submicron 2-methylglutaric acid and ammonium sulfate aerosol particles. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2024; 26:2887-2894. [PMID: 38054479 DOI: 10.1039/d3cp04411d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2023]
Abstract
Liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) in aerosol particles is important for the climate system due to its potential to impact heterogeneous chemistry, cloud condensation nuclei, and new particle growth. Our group and others have shown a lower separation relative humidity for submicron particles, but whether the suppression is due to thermodynamics or kinetics is unclear. Herein, we characterize the experimental LLPS phase diagram of submicron 2-methylglutaric acid and ammonium sulfate aerosol particles and compare it to that of supermicron-sized particles. Surprisingly, as the equilibration time of submicron-sized aerosol particles was increased from 20 min to 60 min, the experimental phase diagram converges with the results for supermicron-sized particles. Our findings indicate that nucleation kinetics are responsible for the observed lower separation relative humidities in submicron aerosol particles. Therefore, experiments and models that investigate atmospheric processes of organic aerosol particles may need to consider the temporal evolution of aerosol LLPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qishen Huang
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
- Institute of Chemical Physics, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Kiran R Pitta
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
| | - Kayla Constantini
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
| | - Emily-Jean E Ott
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
| | - Andreas Zuend
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 0B9, Canada
| | - Miriam Arak Freedman
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
- Department of Meteorology and Atmospheric Science, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
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3
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Wallace BJ, Mongeau ML, Zuend A, Preston TC. Impact of pH on Gas-Particle Partitioning of Semi-Volatile Organics in Multicomponent Aerosol. Environ Sci Technol 2023; 57:16974-16988. [PMID: 37885068 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c02894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
The partitioning of semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) between the condensed and gas phases can have significant implications for the properties of aerosol particles. In addition to affecting size and composition, this partitioning can alter radiative properties and impact cloud activation processes. We present measurements and model predictions on how activity and pH influence the evaporation of SVOCs from particles to the gas phase, specifically investigating aqueous inorganic particles containing dicarboxylic acids (DCAs). The aerosols are studied at the single-particle level by using optical trapping and cavity-enhanced Raman spectroscopy. Optical resonances in the spectra enable precise size tracking, while vibrational bands allow real-time monitoring of pH. Results are compared to a Maxwell-type model that accounts for volatile and nonvolatile solutes in aqueous droplets that are held at a constant relative humidity. The aerosol inorganic-organic mixture functional group activity coefficients thermodynamic model and Debye-Hückel theory are both used to calculate the activities of the species present in the droplet. For DCAs, we find that the evaporation rate is highly sensitive to the particle pH. For acidity changes of approximately 1.5 pH units, we observe a shift from a volatile system to one that is completely nonvolatile. We also observe that the pH itself is not constant during evaporation; it increases as DCAs evaporate, slowing the rate of evaporation until it eventually ceases. Whether a DCA evaporates or remains a stable component of the droplet is determined by the difference between the lowest pKa of the DCA and the pH of the droplet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon J Wallace
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Michel Laforest Mongeau
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Andreas Zuend
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, McGill University, 805 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 0B9
| | - Thomas C Preston
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0B8, Canada
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, McGill University, 805 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 0B9
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4
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Song M, Jeong R, Kim D, Qiu Y, Meng X, Wu Z, Zuend A, Ha Y, Kim C, Kim H, Gaikwad S, Jang KS, Lee JY, Ahn J. Comparison of Phase States of PM 2.5 over Megacities, Seoul and Beijing, and Their Implications on Particle Size Distribution. Environ Sci Technol 2022; 56:17581-17590. [PMID: 36459099 PMCID: PMC9775198 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c06377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Revised: 11/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Although the particle phase state is an important property, there is scant information on it, especially, for real-world aerosols. To explore the phase state of fine mode aerosols (PM2.5) in two megacities, Seoul and Beijing, we collected PM2.5 filter samples daily from Dec 2020 to Jan 2021. Using optical microscopy combined with the poke-and-flow technique, the phase states of the bulk of PM2.5 as a function of relative humidity (RH) were determined and compared to the ambient RH ranges in the two cities. PM2.5 was found to be liquid to semisolid in Seoul but mostly semisolid to solid in Beijing. The liquid state was dominant on polluted days, while a semisolid state was dominant on clean days in Seoul. These findings can be explained by the aerosol liquid water content related to the chemical compositions of the aerosols at ambient RH; the water content of PM2.5 was much higher in Seoul than in Beijing. Furthermore, the overall phase states of PM2.5 observed in Seoul and Beijing were interrelated with the particle size distribution. The results of this study aid in a better understanding of the fundamental physical properties of aerosols and in examining how these are linked to PM2.5 in polluted urban atmospheres.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mijung Song
- Department
of Environment and Energy, Jeonbuk National
University, Jeonju-si 54896, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea
- Department
of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Jeonbuk
National University, Jeonju-si 54896, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Rani Jeong
- Department
of Environment and Energy, Jeonbuk National
University, Jeonju-si 54896, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Daeun Kim
- Department
of Environment and Energy, Jeonbuk National
University, Jeonju-si 54896, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Yanting Qiu
- State
Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control,
College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Xiangxinyue Meng
- State
Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control,
College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Zhijun Wu
- State
Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control,
College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Andreas Zuend
- Department
of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, McGill
University, Montréal, Québec H3A 0B9, Canada
| | - Yoonkyeong Ha
- School
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Changhyuk Kim
- School
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Haeri Kim
- Department
of Environment and Energy, Jeonbuk National
University, Jeonju-si 54896, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Sanjit Gaikwad
- Department
of Environment and Energy, Jeonbuk National
University, Jeonju-si 54896, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyoung-Soon Jang
- Bio-Chemical
Analysis Team, Korea Basic Science Institute, Cheongju 28119, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Yi Lee
- Department
of Environmental Science & Engineering, Ewha Womans University, 52, Ewhayeodae-gil, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 03760, Republic
of Korea
| | - Joonyoung Ahn
- Department
of Atmospheric Environment Research, National
Institute of Environmental Research, 215, Jinheung-ro, Eunpyeong-gu, Seoul 03367, Republic of Korea
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5
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Yao Y, Alpert PA, Zuend A, Wang B. Does liquid-liquid phase separation impact ice nucleation in mixed polyethylene glycol and ammonium sulfate droplets? Phys Chem Chem Phys 2022; 25:80-95. [PMID: 36281770 DOI: 10.1039/d2cp04407b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Particles can undergo different phase transitions in the atmosphere including deliquescence, liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS), melting, and freezing. In this study, phase transitions of particles/droplets containing polyethylene glycol with a molar mass of 400 g mol-1 (PEG400) and ammonium sulfate (AS), i.e., PEG400-AS particles/droplets, were investigated at different organic-to-inorganic dry mass ratios (OIRs) under typical tropospheric temperatures and water activities (aw). The investigated droplets (60-100 μm) with or without LLPS in the closed system froze through homogeneous ice nucleation. At temperatures lower than 200 K, multiple ice nucleation events were observed within the same individual droplets at low aw. Droplets with and without LLPS shared similar lambda values at the same OIR according to the lambda approach indicating they form ice through the same mechanism. A parameterization of lambda values was provided which can be used to predict freezing temperature of aqueous PEG400-AS droplets. We found that adding AS reduces the temperature dependence of aw in aqueous PEG400 droplets. Assuming incorrectly that aw is temperature-independent for a constant droplet composition leads to a deviation between the experimental determined ice nucleation rate coefficients for droplets at OIR > 1 and the predicted values by the water-activity-based ice nucleation theory. We proposed a parameterization of temperature dependence of aw to minimize the deviations of the measured melting temperatures and nucleation rate coefficients from the corresponding predictions for aqueous PEG400-AS system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China.,College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China.
| | - Peter A Alpert
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Zuend
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, McGill University, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Bingbing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China.,College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China.
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6
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Bouzidi H, Fayad L, Coeur C, Houzel N, Petitprez D, Faccinetto A, Wu J, Tomas A, Ondráček J, Schwarz J, Ždímal V, Zuend A. Hygroscopic growth and CCN activity of secondary organic aerosol produced from dark ozonolysis of γ-terpinene. Sci Total Environ 2022; 817:153010. [PMID: 35026240 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The hygroscopic growth factor (GF) and cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) activity of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) particles produced during dark ozonolysis of γ-terpinene under different reaction conditions were investigated. The SOA particles were produced in the presence or absence of cyclohexane, an OH scavenger; 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene, an anthropogenic volatile organic compound; and (NH4)2SO4 seed particles. A hygroscopicity tandem differential mobility analyzer was used to determine the GFs of the SOA particles at RHs ≤ 93%. For some experiments, a CCN counter was used for size-resolved measurement of CCN activation at supersaturation (S) in the range of 0.1 to 1%. The single hygroscopicity parameter κ was derived from both the GF and CCN measurements. Under subsaturated conditions, all the SOA (except those in the presence of the (NH4)2SO4 seeds) showed small GF values. These GFs demonstrated that SOA mass loading affected the GF. A decrease in the SOA mass loading led to increased GF and corresponding κGFvalues. However, in a supersaturation regime, the SOA mass loading and the size of the particles did not significantly alter the CCN activity of the SOA. Our CCN measurements showed higher κCCN values (κCCN = 0.20-0.24) than those observed in most monoterpene ozonolysis studies (κCCN = 0.1-0.14). This difference may have been due to the presence of the two endocyclic double bonds in the γ-terpinene structure, which may have affected the SOA chemical composition, in contrast to monoterpenes that contain an exocyclic double bond. Our comparisons of sub- and supersaturated conditions showed a larger range of κ values than other experiments. Average κCCN/κGF ratios of ~7 and 14 were obtained in the unseeded SOA experiments at low and high SOA mass loadings, respectively. The average κCCN of 0.23 indicated that the SOA produced during ozonolysis of γ-terpinene exhibited fairly high CCN activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hichem Bouzidi
- Laboratoire de Physico-Chimie de l'Atmosphère, Université du Littoral Côte d'Opale, Dunkerque 59140, France; Institute of Chemical Process Fundamentals of the CAS, Department of Aerosols Chemistry and Physics, Prague CZ-16502, Czech Republic; IMT Lille Douai, Institut Mines-Télécom, Univ. Lille, Centre for Energy and Environment, 59000 Lille, France.
| | - Layal Fayad
- Laboratoire de Physico-Chimie de l'Atmosphère, Université du Littoral Côte d'Opale, Dunkerque 59140, France
| | - Cecile Coeur
- Laboratoire de Physico-Chimie de l'Atmosphère, Université du Littoral Côte d'Opale, Dunkerque 59140, France
| | - Nicolas Houzel
- Laboratoire de Physico-Chimie de l'Atmosphère, Université du Littoral Côte d'Opale, Dunkerque 59140, France
| | | | | | - Junteng Wu
- Univ. Lille, CNRS PC2A, 59000 Lille, France
| | - Alexandre Tomas
- IMT Lille Douai, Institut Mines-Télécom, Univ. Lille, Centre for Energy and Environment, 59000 Lille, France
| | - Jakub Ondráček
- Institute of Chemical Process Fundamentals of the CAS, Department of Aerosols Chemistry and Physics, Prague CZ-16502, Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslav Schwarz
- Institute of Chemical Process Fundamentals of the CAS, Department of Aerosols Chemistry and Physics, Prague CZ-16502, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimír Ždímal
- Institute of Chemical Process Fundamentals of the CAS, Department of Aerosols Chemistry and Physics, Prague CZ-16502, Czech Republic
| | - Andreas Zuend
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0B9, Canada
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7
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Eichler CMA, Hubal EAC, Xu Y, Cao J, Bi C, Weschler CJ, Salthammer T, Morrison GC, Koivisto AJ, Zhang Y, Mandin C, Wei W, Blondeau P, Poppendieck D, Liu X, Delmaar CJE, Fantke P, Jolliet O, Shin HM, Diamond ML, Shiraiwa M, Zuend A, Hopke PK, von Goetz N, Kulmala M, Little JC. Assessing Human Exposure to SVOCs in Materials, Products, and Articles: A Modular Mechanistic Framework. Environ Sci Technol 2021; 55:25-43. [PMID: 33319994 PMCID: PMC7877794 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c02329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
A critical review of the current state of knowledge of chemical emissions from indoor sources, partitioning among indoor compartments, and the ensuing indoor exposure leads to a proposal for a modular mechanistic framework for predicting human exposure to semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs). Mechanistically consistent source emission categories include solid, soft, frequent contact, applied, sprayed, and high temperature sources. Environmental compartments are the gas phase, airborne particles, settled dust, indoor surfaces, and clothing. Identified research needs are the development of dynamic emission models for several of the source emission categories and of estimation strategies for critical model parameters. The modular structure of the framework facilitates subsequent inclusion of new knowledge, other chemical classes of indoor pollutants, and additional mechanistic processes relevant to human exposure indoors. The framework may serve as the foundation for developing an open-source community model to better support collaborative research and improve access for application by stakeholders. Combining exposure estimates derived using this framework with toxicity data for different end points and toxicokinetic mechanisms will accelerate chemical risk prioritization, advance effective chemical management decisions, and protect public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara M A Eichler
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Elaine A Cohen Hubal
- Office of Research and Development, U.S. EPA, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, United States
| | - Ying Xu
- Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jianping Cao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, China
| | - Chenyang Bi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Charles J Weschler
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
- International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy, Department of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby 2800, Denmark
| | - Tunga Salthammer
- Fraunhofer WKI, Department of Material Analysis and Indoor Chemistry, Braunschweig 38108, Germany
| | - Glenn C Morrison
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Antti Joonas Koivisto
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
| | - Yinping Zhang
- Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Corinne Mandin
- University of Paris-Est, Scientific and Technical Center for Building (CSTB), French Indoor Air Quality Observatory (OQAI), Champs sur Marne 77447, France
| | - Wenjuan Wei
- University of Paris-Est, Scientific and Technical Center for Building (CSTB), French Indoor Air Quality Observatory (OQAI), Champs sur Marne 77447, France
| | - Patrice Blondeau
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Ingénieur pour l'Environnement - LaSIE, Université de La Rochelle, La Rochelle 77447, France
| | - Dustin Poppendieck
- Engineering Lab, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Xiaoyu Liu
- Office of Research and Development, U.S. EPA, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, United States
| | - Christiaan J E Delmaar
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Center for Safety of Substances and Products, Bilthoven 3720, The Netherlands
| | - Peter Fantke
- Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Technology, Management and Economics, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby 2800, Denmark
| | - Olivier Jolliet
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Hyeong-Moo Shin
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019, United States
| | - Miriam L Diamond
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3B1, Canada
| | - Manabu Shiraiwa
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Andreas Zuend
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A0B9, Canada
| | - Philip K Hopke
- Center for Air Resources Engineering and Science, Clarkson University, Potsdam, New York 13699-5708, United States
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York 14642, United States
| | | | - Markku Kulmala
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
| | - John C Little
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
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8
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Pye HOT, Nenes A, Alexander B, Ault AP, Barth MC, Clegg SL, Collett JL, Fahey KM, Hennigan CJ, Herrmann H, Kanakidou M, Kelly JT, Ku IT, McNeill VF, Riemer N, Schaefer T, Shi G, Tilgner A, Walker JT, Wang T, Weber R, Xing J, Zaveri RA, Zuend A. The Acidity of Atmospheric Particles and Clouds. Atmos Chem Phys 2020; 20:4809-4888. [PMID: 33424953 PMCID: PMC7791434 DOI: 10.5194/acp-20-4809-2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Acidity, defined as pH, is a central component of aqueous chemistry. In the atmosphere, the acidity of condensed phases (aerosol particles, cloud water, and fog droplets) governs the phase partitioning of semi-volatile gases such as HNO3, NH3, HCl, and organic acids and bases as well as chemical reaction rates. It has implications for the atmospheric lifetime of pollutants, deposition, and human health. Despite its fundamental role in atmospheric processes, only recently has this field seen a growth in the number of studies on particle acidity. Even with this growth, many fine particle pH estimates must be based on thermodynamic model calculations since no operational techniques exist for direct measurements. Current information indicates acidic fine particles are ubiquitous, but observationally-constrained pH estimates are limited in spatial and temporal coverage. Clouds and fogs are also generally acidic, but to a lesser degree than particles, and have a range of pH that is quite sensitive to anthropogenic emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides, as well as ambient ammonia. Historical measurements indicate that cloud and fog droplet pH has changed in recent decades in response to controls on anthropogenic emissions, while the limited trend data for aerosol particles indicates acidity may be relatively constant due to the semi-volatile nature of the key acids and bases and buffering in particles. This paper reviews and synthesizes the current state of knowledge on the acidity of atmospheric condensed phases, specifically particles and cloud droplets. It includes recommendations for estimating acidity and pH, standard nomenclature, a synthesis of current pH estimates based on observations, and new model calculations on the local and global scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Havala O. T. Pye
- Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27711, USA
| | - Athanasios Nenes
- School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, CH-1015, Switzerland
- Institute for Chemical Engineering Sciences, Foundation for Research and Technology Hellas, Patras, GR-26504, Greece
| | - Becky Alexander
- Department of Atmospheric Science, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Andrew P. Ault
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-1055, USA
| | - Mary C. Barth
- National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO, 80307, USA
| | - Simon L. Clegg
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Jeffrey L. Collett
- Department of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Kathleen M. Fahey
- Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27711, USA
| | - Christopher J. Hennigan
- Department of Chemical, Biochemical, and Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD, 21250, USA
| | - Hartmut Herrmann
- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research (TROPOS), Atmospheric Chemistry Department (ACD), Leipzig, 04318, Germany
| | - Maria Kanakidou
- Department of Chemistry, University of Crete, Voutes, Heraklion Crete, 71003, Greece
| | - James T. Kelly
- Office of Air Quality Planning & Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27711, USA
| | - I-Ting Ku
- Department of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - V. Faye McNeill
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10027, USA
| | - Nicole Riemer
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, 61801, USA
| | - Thomas Schaefer
- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research (TROPOS), Atmospheric Chemistry Department (ACD), Leipzig, 04318, Germany
| | - Guoliang Shi
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Urban Ambient Air Particulate Matter Pollution Prevention and Control, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Andreas Tilgner
- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research (TROPOS), Atmospheric Chemistry Department (ACD), Leipzig, 04318, Germany
| | - John T. Walker
- Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27711, USA
| | - Tao Wang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Rodney Weber
- School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Jia Xing
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Rahul A. Zaveri
- Atmospheric Sciences & Global Change Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352, USA
| | - Andreas Zuend
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 0B9, Canada
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9
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Fossum KN, Ovadnevaite J, Ceburnis D, Dall'Osto M, Marullo S, Bellacicco M, Simó R, Liu D, Flynn M, Zuend A, O'Dowd C. Summertime Primary and Secondary Contributions to Southern Ocean Cloud Condensation Nuclei. Sci Rep 2018; 8:13844. [PMID: 30218089 PMCID: PMC6138724 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-32047-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Atmospheric aerosols in clean remote oceanic regions contribute significantly to the global albedo through the formation of haze and cloud layers; however, the relative importance of ‘primary’ wind-produced sea-spray over secondary (gas-to-particle conversion) sulphate in forming marine clouds remains unclear. Here we report on marine aerosols (PM1) over the Southern Ocean around Antarctica, in terms of their physical, chemical, and cloud droplet activation properties. Two predominant pristine air masses and aerosol populations were encountered: modified continental Antarctic (cAA) comprising predominantly sulphate with minimal sea-salt contribution and maritime Polar (mP) comprising sulphate plus sea-salt. We estimate that in cAA air, 75% of the CCN are activated into cloud droplets while in mP air, 37% are activated into droplets, for corresponding peak supersaturation ranges of 0.37–0.45% and 0.19–0.31%, respectively. When realistic marine boundary layer cloud supersaturations are considered (e.g. ~0.2–0.3%), sea-salt CCN contributed 2–13% of the activated nuclei in the cAA air and 8–51% for the marine air for surface-level wind speed < 16 m s−1. At higher wind speeds, primary marine aerosol can even contribute up to 100% of the activated CCN, for corresponding peak supersaturations as high as 0.32%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten N Fossum
- School of Physics, Ryan Institute's Centre for Climate & Air Pollution Studies, and Marine Renewable Energy Ireland, National University of Ireland Galway,University Road, Galway, H91 CF50, Ireland
| | - Jurgita Ovadnevaite
- School of Physics, Ryan Institute's Centre for Climate & Air Pollution Studies, and Marine Renewable Energy Ireland, National University of Ireland Galway,University Road, Galway, H91 CF50, Ireland
| | - Darius Ceburnis
- School of Physics, Ryan Institute's Centre for Climate & Air Pollution Studies, and Marine Renewable Energy Ireland, National University of Ireland Galway,University Road, Galway, H91 CF50, Ireland
| | - Manuel Dall'Osto
- Institut de Ciències del Mar (CSIC), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Salvatore Marullo
- Agenzia nazionale per le nuove tecnologie, l'energia e lo sviluppo economico sostenibile, ENEA - Centro Ricerche Frascati, Frascati, Italy.,Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (ISAC), Rome, Italy
| | - Marco Bellacicco
- Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (ISAC), Rome, Italy.,Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire d'Océanographie de Villefranche, LOV, F-06230, Villefranche-sur-Mer, France
| | - Rafel Simó
- Institut de Ciències del Mar (CSIC), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Dantong Liu
- Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Michael Flynn
- Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Andreas Zuend
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Colin O'Dowd
- School of Physics, Ryan Institute's Centre for Climate & Air Pollution Studies, and Marine Renewable Energy Ireland, National University of Ireland Galway,University Road, Galway, H91 CF50, Ireland.
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10
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Pye HOT, Zuend A, Fry JL, Isaacman-VanWertz G, Capps SL, Appel KW, Foroutan H, Xu L, Ng NL, Goldstein AH. Coupling of organic and inorganic aerosol systems and the effect on gas-particle partitioning in the southeastern US. Atmos Chem Phys 2018; 18:357-370. [PMID: 29963078 PMCID: PMC6020690 DOI: 10.5194/acp-18-357-2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Several models were used to describe the partitioning of ammonia, water, and organic compounds between the gas and particle phases for conditions in the southeastern US during summer 2013. Existing equilibrium models and frameworks were found to be sufficient, although additional improvements in terms of estimating pure-species vapor pressures are needed. Thermodynamic model predictions were consistent, to first order, with a molar ratio of ammonium to sulfate of approximately 1.6 to 1.8 (ratio of ammonium to 2× sulfate, RN/2S ≈ 0.8 to 0.9) with approximately 70% of total ammonia and ammonium (NH x ) in the particle. Southeastern Aerosol Research and Characterization Network (SEARCH) gas and aerosol and Southern Oxidant and Aerosol Study (SOAS) Monitor for AeRosols and Gases in Ambient air (MARGA) aerosol measurements were consistent with these conditions. CMAQv5.2 regional chemical transport model predictions did not reflect these conditions due to a factor of 3 overestimate of the nonvolatile cations. In addition, gas-phase ammonia was overestimated in the CMAQ model leading to an even lower fraction of total ammonia in the particle. Chemical Speciation Network (CSN) and aerosol mass spectrometer (AMS) measurements indicated less ammonium per sulfate than SEARCH and MARGA measurements and were inconsistent with thermodynamic model predictions. Organic compounds were predicted to be present to some extent in the same phase as inorganic constituents, modifying their activity and resulting in a decrease in [H+]air (H+ in μgm-3 air), increase in ammonia partitioning to the gas phase, and increase in pH compared to complete organic vs. inorganic liquid-liquid phase separation. In addition, accounting for nonideal mixing modified the pH such that a fully interactive inorganic-organic system had a pH roughly 0.7 units higher than predicted using traditional methods (pH = 1.5 vs. 0.7). Particle-phase interactions of organic and inorganic compounds were found to increase partitioning towards the particle phase (vs. gas phase) for highly oxygenated (O : C≥0.6) compounds including several isoprene-derived tracers as well as levoglu-cosan but decrease particle-phase partitioning for low O: C, monoterpene-derived species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Havala O. T. Pye
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Andreas Zuend
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Québec, Canada
| | - Juliane L. Fry
- Department of Chemistry, Reed College, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Gabriel Isaacman-VanWertz
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Shannon L. Capps
- Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - K. Wyat Appel
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Hosein Foroutan
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Lu Xu
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
| | - Nga L. Ng
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Allen H. Goldstein
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
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11
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Rastak N, Pajunoja A, Acosta Navarro JC, Ma J, Song M, Partridge DG, Kirkevåg A, Leong Y, Hu WW, Taylor NF, Lambe A, Cerully K, Bougiatioti A, Liu P, Krejci R, Petäjä T, Percival C, Davidovits P, Worsnop DR, Ekman AML, Nenes A, Martin S, Jimenez JL, Collins DR, Topping D, Bertram AK, Zuend A, Virtanen A, Riipinen I. Microphysical explanation of the RH-dependent water affinity of biogenic organic aerosol and its importance for climate. Geophys Res Lett 2017; 44:5167-5177. [PMID: 28781391 PMCID: PMC5518298 DOI: 10.1002/2017gl073056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2017] [Revised: 04/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/25/2017] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
A large fraction of atmospheric organic aerosol (OA) originates from natural emissions that are oxidized in the atmosphere to form secondary organic aerosol (SOA). Isoprene (IP) and monoterpenes (MT) are the most important precursors of SOA originating from forests. The climate impacts from OA are currently estimated through parameterizations of water uptake that drastically simplify the complexity of OA. We combine laboratory experiments, thermodynamic modeling, field observations, and climate modeling to (1) explain the molecular mechanisms behind RH-dependent SOA water-uptake with solubility and phase separation; (2) show that laboratory data on IP- and MT-SOA hygroscopicity are representative of ambient data with corresponding OA source profiles; and (3) demonstrate the sensitivity of the modeled aerosol climate effect to assumed OA water affinity. We conclude that the commonly used single-parameter hygroscopicity framework can introduce significant error when quantifying the climate effects of organic aerosol. The results highlight the need for better constraints on the overall global OA mass loadings and its molecular composition, including currently underexplored anthropogenic and marine OA sources.
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12
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Abstract
The origins of the size dependent morphology of organic aerosol are explored by probing the morphology of poly(ethylene glycol)-400/ammonium sulfate mixtures using cryogenic-transmission electron microscopy. Surprisingly, we observe a size dependence at some compositions, but not at others. Our results suggest that size dependence occurs due to an activated process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Bilal Altaf
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, 104 Chemistry Building, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
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13
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Lienhard DM, Zobrist B, Zuend A, Krieger UK, Peter T. Response to “Comment on ‘Experimental evidence for excess entropy discontinuities in glass-forming solutions”’ [J. Chem. Phys. 139, 047101 (2013)]. J Chem Phys 2013; 139:047102. [DOI: 10.1063/1.4812930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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14
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Loza CL, Coggon MM, Nguyen TB, Zuend A, Flagan RC, Seinfeld JH. On the mixing and evaporation of secondary organic aerosol components. Environ Sci Technol 2013; 47:6173-6180. [PMID: 23725344 DOI: 10.1021/es400979k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The physical state and chemical composition of an organic aerosol affect its degree of mixing and its interactions with condensing species. We present here a laboratory chamber procedure for studying the effect of the mixing of organic aerosol components on particle evaporation. The procedure is applied to the formation of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) from α-pinene and toluene photooxidation. SOA evaporation is induced by heating the chamber aerosol from room temperature (25 °C) to 42 °C over 7 h and detected by a shift in the peak diameter of the SOA size distribution. With this protocol, α-pinene SOA is found to be more volatile than toluene SOA. When SOA is formed from the two precursors sequentially, the evaporation behavior of the SOA most closely resembles that of SOA from the second parent hydrocarbon, suggesting that the structure of the mixed SOA resembles a core of SOA from the initial precursor coated by a layer of SOA from the second precursor. Such a core-and-shell configuration of the organic aerosol phases implies limited mixing of the SOA from the two precursors on the time scale of the experiments, consistent with a high viscosity of at least one of the phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine L Loza
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
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15
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Shiraiwa M, Zuend A, Bertram AK, Seinfeld JH. Gas-particle partitioning of atmospheric aerosols: interplay of physical state, non-ideal mixing and morphology. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2013; 15:11441-53. [PMID: 23748935 DOI: 10.1039/c3cp51595h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Atmospheric aerosols, comprising organic compounds and inorganic salts, play a key role in air quality and climate. Mounting evidence exists that these particles frequently exhibit phase separation into predominantly organic and aqueous electrolyte-rich phases. As well, the presence of amorphous semi-solid or glassy particle phases has been established. Using the canonical system of ammonium sulfate mixed with organics from the ozone oxidation of α-pinene, we illustrate theoretically the interplay of physical state, non-ideality, and particle morphology affecting aerosol mass concentration and the characteristic timescale of gas-particle mass transfer. Phase separation can significantly affect overall particle mass and chemical composition. Semi-solid or glassy phases can kinetically inhibit the partitioning of semivolatile components and hygroscopic growth, in contrast to the traditional assumption that organic compounds exist in quasi-instantaneous gas-particle equilibrium. These effects have significant implications for the interpretation of laboratory data and the development of improved atmospheric air quality and climate models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manabu Shiraiwa
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
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16
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Lienhard DM, Bones DL, Zuend A, Krieger UK, Reid JP, Peter T. Measurements of Thermodynamic and Optical Properties of Selected Aqueous Organic and Organic–Inorganic Mixtures of Atmospheric Relevance. J Phys Chem A 2012; 116:9954-68. [DOI: 10.1021/jp3055872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel M. Lienhard
- Institute
for Atmospheric and
Climate Science, ETH Zürich, Zürich,
Switzerland
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - David L. Bones
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - Andreas Zuend
- Department of Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California,
United States
| | - Ulrich K. Krieger
- Institute
for Atmospheric and
Climate Science, ETH Zürich, Zürich,
Switzerland
| | - Jonathan P. Reid
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Peter
- Institute
for Atmospheric and
Climate Science, ETH Zürich, Zürich,
Switzerland
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17
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Lienhard DM, Zobrist B, Zuend A, Krieger UK, Peter T. Experimental evidence for excess entropy discontinuities in glass-forming solutions. J Chem Phys 2012; 136:074515. [DOI: 10.1063/1.3685902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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18
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Ciobanu VG, Marcolli C, Krieger UK, Zuend A, Peter T. Efflorescence of Ammonium Sulfate and Coated Ammonium Sulfate Particles: Evidence for Surface Nucleation. J Phys Chem A 2010; 114:9486-95. [DOI: 10.1021/jp103541w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- V. Gabriela Ciobanu
- Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland, and Department of Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125
| | - Claudia Marcolli
- Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland, and Department of Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125
| | - Ulrich K. Krieger
- Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland, and Department of Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125
| | - Andreas Zuend
- Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland, and Department of Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125
| | - Thomas Peter
- Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland, and Department of Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125
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