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Makgoba L, Abrams A, Röösli M, Cissé G, Dalvie MA. DDT contamination in water resources of some African countries and its impact on water quality and human health. Heliyon 2024; 10:e28054. [PMID: 38560195 PMCID: PMC10979284 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e28054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 01/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) usage has been prohibited in developed nations since 1972 but is exempted for use in indoor residual spraying (IRS) in developing countries, including African countries, for malaria control. There have been no previous reviews on DDT residues in water resources in Africa. The study aimed to provide a review of available research investigating the levels of DDT residues in water sources in Africa and to assess the consequent human health risks. A scoping review of published studies in Africa was conducted through a systematic electronic search using PubMed, Web of Science, EBSCO HOST, and Scopus. A total of 24 articles were eligible and reviewed. Concentrations of DDT ranged from non-detectable levels to 81.2 μg/L. In 35% of the studies, DDT concentrations surpassed the World Health Organization (WHO) drinking water guideline of 1 μg/L in the sampled water sources. The highest DDT concentrations were found in South Africa (81.2 μg/L) and Egypt (5.62 μg/L). DDT residues were detected throughout the year in African water systems, but levels were found to be higher during the wet season. Moreover, water from taps, rivers, reservoirs, estuaries, wells, and boreholes containing DDT residues was used as drinking water. Seven studies conducted health risk assessments, with two studies identifying cancer risk values surpassing permissible thresholds in water sampled from sources designated for potable use. Non-carcinogenic health risks in the studies fell below a hazard quotient of 1. Consequently, discernible evidence of risks to human health surfaced, given that the concentration of DDT residues surpassed either the WHO drinking water guidelines or the permissible limits for cancer risk in sampled drinking sources within African water systems. Therefore, alternative methods for malaria vector control should be investigated and applied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lethabo Makgoba
- Centre for Environmental and Occupational Health Research, School of Public Health, University of Cape Town, Health Sciences Faculty, Observatory, Cape Town, 7925, South Africa
| | - Amber Abrams
- Future Water Research Institute, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, 7700, South Africa
| | - Martin Röösli
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, P.O. Box, CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, P.O. Box, CH-4003, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Guéladio Cissé
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, P.O. Box, CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, P.O. Box, CH-4003, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Mohamed Aqiel Dalvie
- Centre for Environmental and Occupational Health Research, School of Public Health, University of Cape Town, Health Sciences Faculty, Observatory, Cape Town, 7925, South Africa
- Future Water Research Institute, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, 7700, South Africa
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Wolmarans NJ, Bervoets L, Meire P, Wepener V. Sub-lethal exposure to malaria vector control pesticides causes alterations in liver metabolomics and behaviour of the African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis). Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2022; 251:109173. [PMID: 34492387 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2021.109173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In this study we explore the sub-lethal effects of two malaria vector control pesticides, deltamethrin and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), on Xenopus laevis by incorporating different levels of biological organisation. Pesticide accumulation in frog tissue was measured alongside liver metabolomics and individual swimming behaviour to assess whether changes presented at these different levels, and if such changes could be linked between levels. Results showed evidence of concentration dependent accumulation of DDT and its metabolites, but no measurable accumulation of deltamethrin in adult X. laevis after 96 h of exposure. Both DDT and deltamethrin were shown to cause alterations in the liver metabolome of X. laevis. We also showed that some of these changes can be enhanced in exposure to a mixture of these two pesticides. Initial behavioural responses recorded directly after exposure were seen in the form of decreased activity, less alterations between mobility states, and less time spent at the water surface. This response persisted after 96 h of exposure to a mixture of the two pesticides. This study shows that sub-lethal exposure to pesticides can alter the biochemical homeostasis of frogs with the potential to cascade onto behavioural and ecological levels in mixture exposure scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nico J Wolmarans
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa; Laboratory of Systemic, Physiological and Ecotoxicological Research, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Lieven Bervoets
- Laboratory of Systemic, Physiological and Ecotoxicological Research, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Patrick Meire
- Ecosystem Management Research Group (Ecobe), Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Victor Wepener
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
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Wolmarans NJ, Bervoets L, Gerber R, Yohannes YB, Nakayama SM, Ikenaka Y, Ishizuka M, Meire P, Smit NJ, Wepener V. Bioaccumulation of DDT and other organochlorine pesticides in amphibians from two conservation areas within malaria risk regions of South Africa. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 274:129956. [PMID: 33979909 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.129956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The threat to wildlife from chemical exposure exists regardless of the presence of conservation boundaries. An issue exacerbated by the use of environmentally persistent insecticides for vector control and long-range transport of legacy persistent organic pollutants. In this comparative study between two important conservation regions in South Africa, Kruger National Park (KNP) and Ndumo Game Reserve (NGR), we assessed organochlorine pesticide (OCP) accumulation in several anuran species collected from within the conservation regions. The two conservation regions differ in size and subsequent proximity of collection sites to OCP input sources. Detectable concentrations of OCPs were present in ∼ half the frogs analysed from KNP and ∼all frogs from NGR and total OCP loads were similar between regions, where measured in the same species. The OCP profiles in KNP frogs were representative of legacy pesticides likely introduced via long-range transport, whereas NGR profiles showed influence of current use of DDT consistent with close proximity to sources. This indicates amphibians can accumulate OCPs within conservation regions and that the exposure of non-target organisms inside conservation regions to current use pesticides has a strong association with proximity to sources. These results serve to inform conservation management decision making with regard to the non-target organism effects of chemical interventions such as vector control pesticide use in and around conservation regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nico J Wolmarans
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa; Laboratory of Systemic, Physiological and Ecotoxicological Research, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Lieven Bervoets
- Laboratory of Systemic, Physiological and Ecotoxicological Research, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Ruan Gerber
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Yared Beyene Yohannes
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Shouta Mm Nakayama
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Ikenaka
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa; Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Mayumi Ishizuka
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Patrick Meire
- Ecosystem Management Research Group (Ecobe), Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Nico J Smit
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Victor Wepener
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa; Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
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Torquetti CG, Guimarães ATB, Soto-Blanco B. Exposure to pesticides in bats. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 755:142509. [PMID: 33032135 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Bats provide a variety of ecological services that are essential to the integrity of ecosystems. Indiscriminate use of pesticides has been a threat to biodiversity, and the exposure of bats to these xenobiotics is a threat to their populations. This study presents a review of articles regarding the exposure of bats to pesticides published in the period from January 1951 to July 2020, addressing the temporal and geographical distribution of research, the studied species, and the most studied classes of pesticides. The research was concentrated in the 1970s and 1980s, mostly in the Northern Hemisphere, mainly in the USA. Of the total species in the world, only 5% of them have been studied, evaluating predominantly insectivorous species of the Family Vespertilionidae. Insecticides, mainly organochlorines, were the most studied pesticides. Most research was observational, with little information available on the effects of pesticides on natural bat populations. Despite the advances in analytical techniques for detecting contaminants, the number of studies is still insufficient compared to the number of active ingredients used. The effects of pesticides on other guilds and tropical species remain poorly studied. Future research should investigate the effects of pesticides, especially in sublethal doses causing chronic exposure. It is crucial to assess the impact of these substances on other food guilds and investigate how natural populations respond to the exposure to mixtures of pesticides found in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila Guimarães Torquetti
- Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinárias, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Avenida Antônio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG 30123-970, Brazil
| | - Ana Tereza Bittencourt Guimarães
- Laboratório de Investigações Biológicas, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Estadual do Oeste do Paraná, Rua Universitária 2069, Cascavel, PR 85819-110, Brazil
| | - Benito Soto-Blanco
- Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia Veterinárias, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Avenida Antônio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG 30123-970, Brazil.
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Horak I, Horn S, Pieters R. Agrochemicals in freshwater systems and their potential as endocrine disrupting chemicals: A South African context. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 268:115718. [PMID: 33035912 PMCID: PMC7513804 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 09/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
South Africa is the largest agrochemical user in sub-Saharan Africa, with over 3000 registered pesticide products. Although they reduce crop losses, these chemicals reach non-target aquatic environments via leaching, spray drift or run-off. In this review, attention is paid to legacy and current-use pesticides reported in literature for the freshwater environment of South Africa and to the extent these are linked to endocrine disruption. Although banned, residues of many legacy organochlorine pesticides (endosulfan and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)) are still detected in South African watercourses and wildlife. Several current-use pesticides (triazine herbicides, glyphosate-based herbicides, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and chlorpyrifos) have also been reported. Agrochemicals can interfere with normal hormone function of non-target organism leading to various endocrine disrupting (ED) effects: intersex, reduced spermatogenesis, asymmetric urogenital papillae, testicular lesions and infertile eggs. Although studies investigating the occurrence of agrochemicals and/or ED effects in freshwater aquatic environments in South Africa have increased, few studies determined both the levels of agricultural pesticides present and associated ED effects. The majority of studies conducted are either laboratory-based employing in vitro or in vivo bioassays to determine ED effects of agrochemicals or studies that investigate environmental concentrations of pesticides. However, a combined approach of bioassays and chemical screening will provide a more comprehensive overview of agrochemical pollution of water systems in South Africa and the risks associated with long-term chronic exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilzé Horak
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa.
| | - Suranie Horn
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Rialet Pieters
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
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Wolmarans NJ, Bervoets L, Meire P, Wepener V. Current Status and Future Prognosis of Malaria Vector Control Pesticide Ecotoxicology and Xenopus sp. REVIEWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2020; 252:131-171. [PMID: 31463624 DOI: 10.1007/398_2019_35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Anurans from the genus Xenopus have long been used as standard testing organisms and occur naturally in tropical and sub-tropical areas where malaria vector control pesticides are actively used. However, literature on the toxic effects of these pesticides is limited. This review analyses the available data pertaining to both Xenopus and the pesticides used for malaria vector control in order to determine the pesticides that have the greatest potential to influence amphibian health while also identifying gaps in literature that need to be addressed. Amphibian diversity has shown the fastest decline of any group, yet there are still voids in our understanding of how this is happening. The lack of basic toxicity data on amphibians with regard to pesticides is an issue that needs to be addressed in order to improve effectiveness of amphibian conservation strategies. Meta-analyses performed in this review show that, at current usage, with the available acute toxicity literature, the pyrethroid pesticide group could hold the highest potential to cause acute toxicity to Xenopus sp. in relation to the other MVCPs discussed, but the lack of data cripples the efficacy with which meta-analyses can be performed and conclusions made from such analyses. Several studies have shown that DDT accumulates in Xenopus sp. from malaria vector control areas, but accumulation of other MVCPs in frogs is still largely unknown. Through this review we hope to encourage future research into the field of amphibian ecotoxicology and to promote the use of the Xenopus standard model in order to build comprehensive datasets that may be used in amphibian conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nico J Wolmarans
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa.
- Laboratory of Systemic, Physiological and Ecotoxicological Research, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Lieven Bervoets
- Laboratory of Systemic, Physiological and Ecotoxicological Research, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Patrick Meire
- Ecosystem Management Research Group (Ecobe), Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Victor Wepener
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
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South J, Botha TL, Wolmarans NJ, Wepener V, Weyl OLF. Assessing predator-prey interactions in a chemically altered aquatic environment: the effects of DDT on Xenopus laevis and Culex sp. larvae interactions and behaviour. ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2019; 28:771-780. [PMID: 31278447 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-019-02075-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Behavioural assays are used as a tool to understand ecotoxicological effects on organisms, but are often not applied in an ecologically relevant context. Assessment of the effect of chemical contaminants on behaviours relating to fitness and trophic interactions for example, requires incorporating predator-prey interactions to create impact assessments. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is a controlled substance but is still regularly used as a form of mosquito control. There is little explicit information on the effect of DDT on animal behaviour and the consequent effects upon trophic interactions. This study uses a 3 × 2 factorial design to assess the feeding behaviour of Xenopus laevis toward Culex sp. larvae when supplied with different prey cues. We also assess the behavioural responses of mosquito larvae when supplied with no threat cue and predator threat cues when exposed to 0 µg/L, 2 µg/L and 20 µg/L DDT. There was a significant "DDT exposure" x "prey cue" interaction whereby DDT significantly decreased the foraging behaviour of X. laevis towards live prey cues, however there was no effect of DDT on X. laevis response to olfactory prey cues. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane exposure caused mosquito larvae to appear hyperactive regardless of DDT concentration. Mosquito larvae anti-predator response was significantly dampened when exposed to 2 µg/L DDT, however when exposed to 20 µg/L the anti-predator responses were not impaired. Our results indicate a complex interplay in trophic interactions under DDT exposure, wherein effects are mediated depending on species and concentration. There are possible implications regarding reduced anti-predator behaviour in the prey species but also reduced foraging capacity in the predator, which could drive changes in ecosystem energy pathways. We demonstrate that in order to quantify effects of pesticides upon trophic interactions it is necessary to consider ecologically relevant behaviours of both predator and prey species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josie South
- DST/NRF Research Chair in Inland Fisheries and Freshwater Ecology Laboratory, South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity (SAIAB), Grahamstown, 6140, South Africa.
| | - Tarryn L Botha
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, Water Research Group, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Nico J Wolmarans
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, Water Research Group, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
- Laboratory of Systemic, Physiological and Ecotoxicological Research, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, Antwerp, 2020, Belgium
| | - Victor Wepener
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, Water Research Group, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Olaf L F Weyl
- DST/NRF Research Chair in Inland Fisheries and Freshwater Ecology Laboratory, South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity (SAIAB), Grahamstown, 6140, South Africa
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Wolmarans NJ, Du Preez LH, Yohannes YB, Ikenaka Y, Ishizuka M, Smit NJ, Wepener V. Linking organochlorine exposure to biomarker response patterns in Anurans: a case study of Müller's clawed frog (Xenopus muelleri) from a tropical malaria vector control region. ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2018; 27:1203-1216. [PMID: 30173332 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-018-1972-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/20/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Organochlorine pesticides are highly persistent in aquatic ecosystems. Amphibians, specifically anurans, play an intricate part in the aquatic food web, and have very permeable skin which makes them prone to bioaccumulation of persistent pollutants. In this study the bioaccumulation of various legacy organochlorine pesticides (OCPs)-including dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), currently used for malaria vector control (MVC)-was assessed along with a set of biomarker responses in Müller's clawed frog Xenopus muelleri collected from the lower Phongolo River floodplain in South Africa. Possible relationships between bioaccumulation and biomarkers (of exposure, oxidative stress biomarkers, and cellular energy allocation) alongside their temporal changes were investigated. The OCP concentrations showed a significant increase over time for the duration of the study. The increase correlated negatively with rainfall from the region. DDT levels were well below expected effects levels with p,p-DDE being the main contributing metabolite. The results of this study indicate OCPs actively accumulate at sub-lethal levels in aquatic frogs from the study area, while showing possible relations towards some of the biochemical stress responses measured. Most notable were negative relationships indicated between p,p-DDE and acetylcholinesterase, malondialdehyde, and carbohydrates and protein energy availability. Levels of DDT were not found to be significantly higher than other legacy pesticides in the frog tissue, although evidence of newly introduced DDT in the frog tissue was found. Further investigation about sub-lethal effects of these pesticides on anurans is required to gain better insight into their full impact on animal livelihood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nico J Wolmarans
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
| | - Louis H Du Preez
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
- South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity, Somerset Street, Grahamstown, 6139, South Africa
| | - Yared Beyene Yohannes
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, N18, W9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Ikenaka
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, N18, W9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan
| | - Mayumi Ishizuka
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, N18, W9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan
| | - Nico J Smit
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Victor Wepener
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
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Pheiffer W, Wolmarans NJ, Gerber R, Yohannes YB, Ikenaka Y, Ishizuka M, Smit NJ, Wepener V, Pieters R. Fish consumption from urban impoundments: What are the health risks associated with DDTs and other organochlorine pesticides in fish to township residents of a major inland city. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 628-629:517-527. [PMID: 29453181 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Revised: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in South Africa have for the most part been banned, except dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) which is still used as malaria vector control. The aim of this study was to determine OCP residues in the aquatic fauna of one of South Africa's most populated areas, Soweto. Risk to human health through OCP exposure via fish consumption was investigated. Clarias gariepinus was chosen as bioindicator because it is an apex predator that is in abundance, but is also a valued food source. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), and chlordanes (CHLs) were detected in the fish tissue with the DDTs being the most prevalent at all sites. Of the three locations, Fleurhof, Orlando, and Lenasia, the latter location's fish had the highest ΣOCP load, ranging between 81 and 1190ng/gwm. The DDTs were determined to be from historic use, whereas the CHL levels indicated more recent inputs. Although the possibility of illegal use cannot be excluded completely, the presence of OCPs outside of their allowed areas of use indicate that these compounds not only stay in the aquatic systems long term, but may be of concern in areas previously not considered high risk areas. The OCP residues in C. gariepinus from the study area pose an extremely high risk to human health when consumed, and has a cancer risk as high as 1 in 10. This potential problem should be kept in consideration when developing national health and conservation strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wihan Pheiffer
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Science and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa.
| | - Nico J Wolmarans
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Science and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Ruan Gerber
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Science and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Yared B Yohannes
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18, Nishi 9, Kita ku, Sapporo 060-0818, Japan; Department of Chemistry, College of Natural and Computational Science, University of Gondar, P.O. Box 196, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Yoshinori Ikenaka
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Science and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa; Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18, Nishi 9, Kita ku, Sapporo 060-0818, Japan
| | - Mayumi Ishizuka
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18, Nishi 9, Kita ku, Sapporo 060-0818, Japan
| | - Nico J Smit
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Science and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Victor Wepener
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Science and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Rialet Pieters
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Science and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
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Yohannes YB, Ikenaka Y, Ito G, Nakayama SMM, Mizukawa H, Wepener V, Smit NJ, Van Vuren JHJ, Ishizuka M. Assessment of DDT contamination in house rat as a possible bioindicator in DDT-sprayed areas from Ethiopia and South Africa. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 24:23763-23770. [PMID: 28865000 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-9911-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 08/03/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Ethiopia and South Africa are among the few countries to still implement indoor residual spraying with dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) for malaria vector control. In this study, we investigated the levels and ecological risks of DDT and its metabolites in liver tissues of house rat, as a sentinel animal, for providing an early warning system for public health and wildlife intervention from Ethiopia and South Africa. The results showed that ΣDDT concentration ranged from 127 to 9155 μg/kg wet weight, and the distribution order of DDT and its metabolites in the analyzed liver samples was p,p'-DDD > p,p'-DDE >> p,p'-DDT, o,p'-DDT, and o,p'-DDD. The risk assessment indicated a potential adverse impact on humans, especially for pregnant women and children, because they spend majority of their time in a DDT-sprayed house. The ecological assessment also showed a concern for birds of prey and amphibians like frogs. This study is the first report on DDT contamination in liver tissues of house rats from Ethiopia and South Africa, and henceforth, the data will serve as a reference data for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yared Beyene Yohannes
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18, Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan
- Department of Chemistry, College of Natural and Computational Science, University of Gondar, P.O. Box 196, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Yoshinori Ikenaka
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18, Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, Potchefstroom Campus, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Gengo Ito
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18, Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan
| | - Shouta M M Nakayama
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18, Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan
| | - Hazuki Mizukawa
- Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18, Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan
| | - Victor Wepener
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, Potchefstroom Campus, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Nico J Smit
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, Potchefstroom Campus, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Johan H J Van Vuren
- Department of Zoology, Kingsway Campus, University of Johannesburg, PO Box 524, Auckland Park, 2006, South Africa
| | - Mayumi Ishizuka
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18, Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan.
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