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Ma Y, Romanak KA, Capozzi SL, Xia C, Lehman DC, Harrad S, Cline-Cole R, Venier M. Socio-Economic Factors Impact US Dietary Exposure to Halogenated Flame Retardants. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY LETTERS 2023; 10:478-484. [PMID: 37333937 PMCID: PMC10269323 DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.3c00224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
Although diet is an important route of exposure for brominated flame retardants (BFRs), little is known of their presence in US food. Therefore, we purchased meat, fish, and dairy product samples (n = 72) in Bloomington, IN, from 3 stores representing national retail chains at different price levels. Composite samples (n = 42) were analyzed for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD), novel BFRs (NBFRs), and dechlorane plus (DP). Concentrations of total halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) ranged between 54 and 1,400 pg/g ww, with PBDEs being the predominant compounds. Concentrations of NBFRs, but not PBDEs, in US food items were significantly impacted by price, raising the issue of environmental justice. Nonorganic food generally had a higher abundance of BDE-209 than organic food items. Estimates of dietary exposure revealed that meat and cheese consumption contribute most to the overall HFR intake and that intakes are highest for children and for non-Hispanic Asians. Taking into account several caveats and limitations of this study, these results as a whole suggest that health burdens from dietary exposure to HFRs have become minimal for US citizens, highlighting the positive impact of regulatory efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulong Ma
- School of Geography, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, U.K
- O'Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA
| | - Kevin Andrew Romanak
- O'Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA
| | - Staci Lynn Capozzi
- O'Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA
| | - Chunjie Xia
- O'Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA
| | - Daniel Crawford Lehman
- O'Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA
| | - Stuart Harrad
- School of Geography, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, U.K
| | - Reginald Cline-Cole
- Department of African Studies & Anthropology, School of History and Cultures, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, U.K
| | - Marta Venier
- O'Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA
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Hanari N, Otake T, Itoh N, Wada A, Ohata M, Bao X, Shimizu Y, Falandysz J. Evaluation of flame retardancy and flexural property on prepared plastic disks containing known concentrations of flame retardants through simulated weathering tests. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART A, TOXIC/HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2021; 56:1287-1295. [PMID: 34590549 DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2021.1982332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The standardized acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) or polycarbonate (PC) resin disk with added flame retardants (FRs) has a potential to be a suitable tool for predictions of both aging of the plastic materials and release rate of a flame retardants exposed under different outdoor and indoor conditions. The experiments examined the dynamics and kinetics of the release of dechlorane plus, tetrabromobisphenol A, triphenyl phosphate and antimony trioxide as FRs from a standardized plastic disk before and after exposure to artificial sunlight. Assessments were carried out independently to measure changes in the content of flame retardants and monitor the flame retardancy and flexural properties after exposure (60 W/m2) over a period of 200 h and 500 h, which are reasonable to predict a short-time tendency and to receive any advice for a safe re-use. The releases of three organic flame retardants and four elements (Cl, Br, P and Sb) from weathered ABS and PC disks were very limited, except for surface delamination and resin microparticles. Triphenyl phosphate was stable without hydrolysis, while the degradation of tetrabromobisphenol A was observed (approximately 20% decrease for ABS disk and approximately 50% decrease for PC disk). During the study, no significant differences in the flame retardancy and flexural properties of the disks could be detected. In practice, the results obtained from disks of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene or polycarbonate resin with selected flame retardants used in specific conditions may provide technical expertise regarding weathering processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuyasu Hanari
- National Metrology Institute of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (NMIJ/AIST) 1-1-1, Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Takamitsu Otake
- National Metrology Institute of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (NMIJ/AIST) 1-1-1, Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Nobuyasu Itoh
- National Metrology Institute of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (NMIJ/AIST) 1-1-1, Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Ayaka Wada
- National Metrology Institute of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (NMIJ/AIST) 1-1-1, Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Masaki Ohata
- National Metrology Institute of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (NMIJ/AIST) 1-1-1, Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Xinnu Bao
- National Metrology Institute of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (NMIJ/AIST) 1-1-1, Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Shimizu
- National Metrology Institute of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (NMIJ/AIST) 1-1-1, Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Jerzy Falandysz
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Lódź, Lódź, Poland
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Ayala-Cabrera JF, Lacorte S, Moyano E, Santos FJ. Analysis of Dechlorane Plus and related compounds in gull eggs by GC-HRMS using a novel atmospheric pressure photoionization source. Anal Bioanal Chem 2021; 413:3421-3431. [PMID: 33728497 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-021-03286-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Here, a new gas chromatography-atmospheric pressure photoionization-high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-APPI-HRMS) method combined with selective pressurized liquid extraction (sPLE) has been developed for the selective determination of Dechlorane Plus (DP) and its related compounds in gull egg samples used as a bioindicator of contamination. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time these compounds have been analyzed by GC-MS using atmospheric pressure photoionization (APPI). Negative ion dopant-assisted APPI using vapors of diethyl ether and a source temperature of 250 °C provided high ionization efficiencies and mass spectra characterized by intense in-source fragment ions as well as the presence of molecular ion and characteristic cluster ions containing oxygen atoms in their chemical structure. This made it possible to improve the selectivity in the determination of these compounds compared to that obtained with traditional GC-MS ion sources. Under optimized conditions, the sPLE GC-APPI-HRMS (Orbitrap) method provided high recoveries (> 91%), good precisions (RSD% < 12%), and low method limits of detection (0.1-3.5 pg g-1 wet weight). The developed methodology has been applied to the determination of DP and related compounds in eggs of two gull species (L. michahellis and L. audouinii) from several Spanish protected areas. The results obtained showed significant differences in the DP concentration profiles in eggs from different gull breeding locations and between gull species of the same protected area. These results demonstrated the good performance of the GC-APPI-HRMS system to achieve a selective and sensitive determination of DP and related compounds in complex environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan F Ayala-Cabrera
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Chemistry, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 645, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Silvia Lacorte
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), C/Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Encarnacion Moyano
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Chemistry, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 645, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Francisco Javier Santos
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Chemistry, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 645, 08028, Barcelona, Spain.
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Zacs D, Perkons I, Abdulajeva E, Pasecnaja E, Bartkiene E, Bartkevics V. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDD), dechlorane-related compounds (DRCs), and emerging brominated flame retardants (EBFRs) in foods: The levels, profiles, and dietary intake in Latvia. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 752:141996. [PMID: 33207505 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This study was performed to assess the Latvian population exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDD), dechlorane-related compounds (DRCs), and emerging brominated flame retardants (EBFRs). Food items including fish, fish products, meat, dairy products, cereals and bread, eggs, vegetable oils, and sweets were analyzed for the content of these contaminants, followed by per capita intake calculations and risk assessment. The highest dietary exposure for general population was observed in the case of HBCDD, .reaching an estimated daily intake (EDI) value of 2.92 ng kg-1 b.w. (or 3.35 ng kg-1 b.w. if an outlying data point is included), followed by PBDEs with EDI of 1.24 ng kg-1 b.w., including ~25% contribution of PBDE-209 to the overall EDI from PBDEs. DRCs and EBFRs were secondary contributors to the total intake of selected flame retardants (FRs), with the observed EDIs of 0.46 and 0.47 ng kg-1 b.w, respectively. The obtained occurrence data and risk characterization according to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) approach showed the calculated margin of exposure (MOE) values higher than the critical values for PBDE-47, -99 and -153as well as for HBCDD, indicating that the estimated dietary exposures are unlikely to be of significant health concern for the Latvian population. At the same time, it should be pointed out that the risk assessment was performed only for five out of the twenty-five selected halogenated flame retardants (HFRs), while cumulative effects due to the potential presence of other HFRs and their biodegradation products were not considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Zacs
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment "BIOR", Lejupes iela 3, Riga LV-1076, Latvia.
| | - I Perkons
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment "BIOR", Lejupes iela 3, Riga LV-1076, Latvia
| | - E Abdulajeva
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment "BIOR", Lejupes iela 3, Riga LV-1076, Latvia
| | - E Pasecnaja
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment "BIOR", Lejupes iela 3, Riga LV-1076, Latvia
| | - E Bartkiene
- Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Tilzes g. 18, Kaunas LT-47181, Lithuania
| | - V Bartkevics
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment "BIOR", Lejupes iela 3, Riga LV-1076, Latvia
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Dechlorane Plus and Related Compounds in Food-A Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18020690. [PMID: 33466958 PMCID: PMC7830114 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18020690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Dechlorane Plus is a polychlorinated compound which has exclusively anthropic origin. This compound has been manufactured for close to 60 years for various applications, but mainly as flame retardant. Dechlorane Plus and other Dechlorane-related compounds (DRCs) are currently marketed as a replacement for Dechlorane, also known as Mirex, banned in 1978. These compounds share comparable properties to persistent organic pollutants (POPs), such as persistence in the environment, high lipophilicity, bioaccumulation through the food web and adverse effects on the environment and human health. Despite their long production history, they have been only recently reported in various environmental compartments, such as air, soil, and foodstuff. The aim of this review is to provide a picture of the current state of knowledge on worldwide DRC levels in food, in order to highlight gaps and research needs. The review compares the data on DRC contamination available in literature, considering different food categories and sampling country. In addition, it is specified whether the data were obtained from studies on foodstuff to estimate dietary intake, to evaluate the contamination near the e-waste treatment area or for environmental monitoring purposes.
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Zafar MI, Kali S, Ali M, Riaz MA, Naz T, Iqbal MM, Masood N, Munawar K, Jan B, Ahmed S, Waseem A, Niazi MBK. Dechlorane Plus as an emerging environmental pollutant in Asia: a review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:42369-42389. [PMID: 32864714 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-10609-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Dechlorane Plus (DP) is an unregulated, highly chlorinated flame retardant. It has been manufactured from past 40 years but its presence in the environment was initially reported in 2006. Later, it has been found in various biotic and abiotic environmental matrices. However, little attention has been paid to monitor its presence in Asia. Many studies have reported the occurrence of DP in the environment of Asia, yet the data are scarce, and studies are limited to few regions. The objective of present review is to summarize the occurrence, distribution, and toxicity of this ubiquitous pollutant in various environmental matrices (biotic and abiotic). DP has also been reported in the areas with no emission sources, which proves its long-range transport. Moreover, urbanization and industrialization also affect the distribution of DP, i.e., high levels of DP have been found in urban areas relative to the rural. Tidal movement also incorporates in transport of DP across the aquatic system. Further, bioaccumulation trend of DP in various tissues is kidney > liver > muscle tissues, whereas, blood brain barrier resists its accumulation in brain tissues. Additionally, gender-based accumulation trends revealed high DP levels in females in comparison to males due to strong metabolism of males. Furthermore, methodological aspects and instrumental analysis used in previous studies have also been summarized here. However, data on biomagnification in aquatic ecosystem and bioaccumulation of DP in terrestrial food web are still scarce. Toxicity behavior of syn-DP and anti-DP is still unknown which might gain the interest for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mazhar Iqbal Zafar
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan.
| | - Sundas Kali
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan
| | - Mehtabidah Ali
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Asam Riaz
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602-2603, USA
- Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
| | - Tayyaba Naz
- Environmental Science Research Group, School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia
- Environmental Stress Physiology Laboratory, Institute of Soil and Environmental, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Mazhar Iqbal
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry and Applied Eco-chemistry, Department of Applied Analytical and Physical Chemistry, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Soil and Water Testing Laboratory, Department of Agriculture, Government of Punjab, Chiniot, Pakistan
| | - Noshin Masood
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan
| | - Kashif Munawar
- Plant Protection Department, College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Bilal Jan
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan
| | - Sohail Ahmed
- Department of Agricultural Entomology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38040, Pakistan
| | - Amir Waseem
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan
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Zhang Z, Tong X, Xing Y, Ma J, Jiang R, Sun Y, Li J, Li X, Wu T, Xie W. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers, decabromodiphenyl ethane and dechlorane plus in aquatic products from the Yellow River Delta, China. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2020; 161:111733. [PMID: 33068787 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Aquatic biota including fish, shrimp and bivalves were collected from the Yellow River Delta (YRD), China to investigate the levels, composition profile and dietary exposure of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) and dechlorane plus (DP). The concentrations of PBDEs, DBDPE and DP in the organisms ranged from 5.3 to 149, not detected (nd) - 49, and 0.5-29 ng/g lipid weight, respectively. Higher levels of PBDEs and DP were found in mullet (Liza haematocheila).PBDEs were the major pollutants and BDE 209 was the predominant congener of PBDEs suggesting the great production and application of deca-BDE in YRD. The average fanti values for different species were similar to or a little lower than that of the commercial DP, suggesting syn-DP might be selectively accumulated by the organisms. The estimated daily intake values of HFRs suggested consuming fish was the main pathway for the exposure of halogenated flame retardants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaiwang Zhang
- Shandong Engineering and Technology Research Center for Ecological Fragile Belt of Yellow River Delta, School of Biological & Environmental Engineering, Binzhou University, Binzhou 256603, China
| | - Xue Tong
- Shandong Engineering and Technology Research Center for Ecological Fragile Belt of Yellow River Delta, School of Biological & Environmental Engineering, Binzhou University, Binzhou 256603, China
| | - Yan Xing
- Shandong Engineering and Technology Research Center for Ecological Fragile Belt of Yellow River Delta, School of Biological & Environmental Engineering, Binzhou University, Binzhou 256603, China
| | - Jinyan Ma
- Shandong Engineering and Technology Research Center for Ecological Fragile Belt of Yellow River Delta, School of Biological & Environmental Engineering, Binzhou University, Binzhou 256603, China
| | - Rongjuan Jiang
- Shandong Engineering and Technology Research Center for Ecological Fragile Belt of Yellow River Delta, School of Biological & Environmental Engineering, Binzhou University, Binzhou 256603, China
| | - Yuxin Sun
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; Innovation Academy of South China Sea Ecology and Environmental Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China
| | - Jialiang Li
- Shandong Engineering and Technology Research Center for Ecological Fragile Belt of Yellow River Delta, School of Biological & Environmental Engineering, Binzhou University, Binzhou 256603, China
| | - Xueping Li
- Shandong Engineering and Technology Research Center for Ecological Fragile Belt of Yellow River Delta, School of Biological & Environmental Engineering, Binzhou University, Binzhou 256603, China
| | - Tao Wu
- Shandong Engineering and Technology Research Center for Ecological Fragile Belt of Yellow River Delta, School of Biological & Environmental Engineering, Binzhou University, Binzhou 256603, China
| | - Wenjun Xie
- Shandong Engineering and Technology Research Center for Ecological Fragile Belt of Yellow River Delta, School of Biological & Environmental Engineering, Binzhou University, Binzhou 256603, China.
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Vaccher V, Ingenbleek L, Adegboye A, Hossou SE, Koné AZ, Oyedele AD, Kisito CSKJ, Dembélé YK, Hu R, Adbel Malak I, Cariou R, Vénisseau A, Veyrand B, Marchand P, Eyangoh S, Verger P, Dervilly-Pinel G, Leblanc JC, Le Bizec B. Levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in foods from the first regional Sub-Saharan Africa Total Diet Study. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 135:105413. [PMID: 31881431 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.105413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
For the first time, a multi-centre Total Diet Study was carried out in Benin, Cameroon, Mali and Nigeria. We collected and prepared as consumed 528 typical fatty foods from those areas and pooled these subsamples into 44 composites samples. These core foods were tested for a wide spectrum of POPs, including polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), brominated flame-retardants (BFRs), organochlorine compounds (OCs), perfluoro alkyl substances (PFAS) and chlorinated flame retardants (CFRs). The POPs contamination levels were similar or lower than those reported in total diet studies previously conducted worldwide. In most cases, core foods belonging to fish food group presented higher POPs concentrations than the other food groups. Interestingly, we observed a difference in both contamination profile and concentration for smoked fish compared to non-smoked fish. Such finding suggests that the smoking process itself might account for a large proportion of the contamination. Further investigation would require the assessment of combustion materials used to smoke fish as a potential vehicle, which may contribute to the dietary exposure of the studied populations to POPs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luc Ingenbleek
- LABERCA, Oniris, INRA, F-44307 Nantes, France; Centre Pasteur du Cameroun (CPC), Yaoundé BP1274, Cameroon
| | - Abimobola Adegboye
- National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC), Abuja 900288, Nigeria.
| | | | - Abdoulaye Zié Koné
- Agence Nationale de la Sécurité Sanitaire des Aliments (ANSSA), Bamako BP 2362, Mali
| | - Awoyinka Dada Oyedele
- National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC), Abuja 900288, Nigeria.
| | - Chabi Sika K J Kisito
- Laboratoire Central de Sécurité Sanitaire des Aliments (LCSSA), Cotonou BP 6874, Benin
| | | | - Reinwei Hu
- Inovalys, Official Laboratory of Analysis, Le Mans, France.
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Sara Eyangoh
- Centre Pasteur du Cameroun (CPC), Yaoundé BP1274, Cameroon.
| | | | | | - Jean-Charles Leblanc
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 00153 Rome, Italy.
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