A novel nZVI-bentonite nanocomposite to remove trichloroethene (TCE) from solution

Environmental remediation approaches by nanoscale zero valent iron (nZVI) based on its reductivity: a review

The fast rise of organic and metallic pollution has brought significant risks to human health and the ecological environment. Consequently, the remediation of wastewater is in extremely urgent demand and has received increasing attention. Nanoscale zero valent iron (nZVI) possesses a high specific surface area and distinctive reactive interfaces, which offer plentiful active sites for the reduction, oxidation, and adsorption of contaminants. Given these abundant functionalities of nZVI, it has undergone significant and extensive studies on environmental remediation, linking to various mechanisms, such as reduction, oxidation, surface complexation, and coprecipitation, which have shown great promise for application in wastewater treatment. Among these functionalities of nZVI, reductivity is particularly important and widely adopted in dehalogenation, and reduction of nitrate, nitro compounds, and metal ions. The following review comprises a short survey of the most recent reports on the applications of nZVI based on its reductivity. It contains five sections, an introduction to the theme, chemical reduction applications, electrolysis-assisted reduction applications, bacterium-assisted reduction applications, and conclusions about the reported research with perspectives for future developments. Review and elaboration of the recent reductivity-dependent applications of nZVI may not only facilitate the development of more effective and sustainable nZVI materials and the protocols for comprehensive utilization of nZVI, but may also promote the exploration of innovative remediation approaches based on its reductivity.

Synergetic effect of green synthesized NZVI@Chitin-modified ZSM-5 for efficient oxidative degradation of tetracycline

The aggregation and limited activity of nanoscale zero-valent iron (NZVI) in aqueous media hinder its practical application. In this study, a cost-effective, environmentally friendly, robust, and efficient synthesis method for NZVI-based composite was developed. NZVI@Chitin-modified ZSM-5 (NZVI@C-ZSM) composite was facilely and greenly synthesized by loading NZVI into alkali-modified ZSM-5 molecular sieves after modifying with chitin as a surfactant and binder. NZVI@C-ZSM exhibited remarkable efficacy in TC removal, achieving a removal efficiency of 97.72% within 60 min. Compared with pristine NZVI, NZVI@C-ZSM demonstrated twice the removal efficiency, indicating that NZVI@C-ZSM effectively improved the dispersion and stability of NZVI. This enhancement provided more reactive sites for generating reactive oxygen species (ROS), significantly boosting catalytic activity and durability while reducing the potential risk of secondary pollution. An improved two-parameter pseudo-first-order kinetic model was used to effectively characterize the reaction kinetics. The mechanism for TC removal primarily involved an adsorption process and chemical oxidation-reduction reactions induced by hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and superoxide radicals (•O2-). Three potential degradation pathways for TC were suggested. Furthermore, NZVI@C-ZSM exhibited good resistance to interference, suggesting its broad potential for practical applications in complex environmental conditions. This study offers a viable material and method for addressing the issue of antibiotic-contaminated water, with potential applications in water resource management.

Recent advances in clay minerals for groundwater pollution control and remediation

Clay minerals are abundant on Earth and have been crucial to the advancement of human civilization. The ability of clay minerals to absorb chemicals is frequently utilized to remove hazardous compounds from aquatic environments. Moreover, clay-based adsorbent products are both environmentally acceptable and affordable. This study provides an overview of advances in clay minerals in the field of groundwater remediation and related predictions. The existing literature was examined using data and information aggregation approaches. Keyword clustering analysis of the relevant literature revealed that clay minerals are associated with groundwater utilization and soil pollution remediation. Principal component analysis was used to assess the relationships among clay mineral modification methods, pollutant properties, and the Langmuir adsorption capacity (Qmax). The results demonstrated that pollutant properties affect the Qmax of pollutants adsorbed by clay minerals. Systematic cluster analysis was utilized to classify the collected data and investigate the relationships. The pollution adsorption mechanism of the unique structure of clay minerals was investigated based on the characterization results. Modified clay minerals exhibited changes in surface functional groups, internal structure, and pHpzc. This review provides a summary of recent clay-based materials and their applications in groundwater remediation, as well as discussions of their challenges and future prospects.

Recent advances in sulfidized nanoscale zero-valent iron materials for environmental remediation and challenges

Over the past decade, sulfidized nanoscale zero-valent iron (S-nZVI) has been developed as a promising tool for the remediation of contaminated soil, sediment, and water. Although most studies have focused on applying S-nZVI for clean-up purposes, there is still a lack of systematic summary and discussion from its synthesis, application, to toxicity assessment. This review firstly summarized and compared the properties of S-nZVI synthesized from one-step and two-step synthesis methods, and the modification protocols for obtaining better stability and reactivity. In the context of environmental remediation, this review outlined an update on the latest development of S-nZVI for removal of heavy metals, organic pollutants, antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), and antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) and also discussed the underlying removal mechanisms. Environmental factors affecting the remediation performance of S-nZVI (e.g., humic acid, coexisting ions, S/Fe molar ratio, pH, and oxygen condition) were highlighted. Besides, the application potential of S-nZVI in advanced oxidation processes (AOP), especially in activating persulfate, was also evaluated. The toxicity impacts of S-nZVI on the environmental microorganism were described. Finally, the future challenges and remaining restrains to be resolved for better applicability of S-nZVI are also proposed. This review could provide guidance for the environmental remediation with S-nZVI-based technology from theoretical basis and practical perspectives.

Dechlorination of 2,4-dichlorophenol by Fe/Ni nanoparticles: the pathway and the effect of pH and the Ni mass ratio

ABSTRACTThe dechlorination of 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP) by a nanoscale Fe/Ni material was investigated at room temperature. 2,4-DCP can be removed more quickly by an Fe/Ni material with 2% Ni. Fe/Ni exhibited excellent adsorption and reduction efficiency toward 2,4-DCP in an aqueous solution over a wide range of pH values. The removal rate of 2,4-DCP exceeded 95% in 60 min in the pH range of 3.0-9.0, and more than 75% was dechlorinated to phenol (CA). The degradation pathway of 2,4-DCP was confirmed based on analysis of the intermediate and end products. A portion of 2,4-DCP was first dechlorinated with a chlorine atom to produce 2-chlorophenol and 4-chlorophenol, and then dechlorination was performed sequentially to form CA. The other portion of 2,4-DCP was dechlorinated to remove two chlorine atoms simultaneously to generate CA. The investigations are essential to the application of iron-based remediation technology.

Synergistic activation of persulfate by a manganese cobalt oxide/reduced graphene oxide nanocomposite with enhanced degradation of trichloroethylene

Advanced oxidation technology based on persulfate is one of the most reliable and effective technologies for the degradation of wastewater, however the key lies in developing highly efficient catalysts to activate persulfate. Herein, manganese cobalt oxide/reduced graphene oxide (MnCo2O4/rGO) nanocomposites were successfully synthesized via a facile solvothermal method and employed as a highly efficient catalyst to active persulfate for the degradation of trichloroethylene (TCE). The rGO nanosheets have large surface areas, which can increase the contact area with reactants and make the degradation more efficient. Additionally, the MnCo2O4 nanoparticles are in situ grown on the surface of ultrathin rGO nanosheets, endowing the material with high structural porosity and fast transport channels, and are beneficial for the improvement of catalytic sites and the transport of catalysis-relevant species. More importantly, the close contact between MnCo2O4 nanoparticles and rGO nanosheets synergistically favors the electron transfer, thereby accelerating the electron transfer, improving the activation efficiency, and promoting the generation of sulfate radicals (·SO4-). rGO can also reduce the spillover of metal ions. The kinetics model and degradation mechanism of the nanocomposites are also proposed.

Sustainable and Green Synthesis of Iron Nanoparticles Supported on Natural Clays via Palm Waste Extract for Catalytic Oxidation of Crocein Orange G Mono Azoic Dye

In this study, the removal of Crocein Orange G dye (COG) from aqueous solution was investigated using an innovative green catalyst to overcome problems with chemical techniques. Clay bentonite El Hamma (HB)-supported nanoscale zero-valent iron (NZVI) was used as a heterogeneous Fenton-like catalyst for the oxidation of harmful COG. Palm waste extract was herein used as a reducing and capping agent to synthesize NZVI, and HB clay was employed, which was obtained from the El Hamma bentonite deposit in the Gabes province of Tunisia. HB and HB-NZVI were characterized by various techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller (BET), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and zeta potential. Under optimal conditions, total degradation of COG was attained within 180 min. Kinetic studies showed that the dye degradation rate followed well the pseudo-second-order model. The apparent activation energy was 33.11 kJ/mol, which is typical of a physically controlled reaction. The degradation pathways and mineralization study revealed that the adsorption-Fenton-like reaction was the principal mechanism that demonstrated 100% degradation efficiency of COG even after three successive runs. Obtained results suggest that HB-NZVI is an affective heterogeneous catalyst for the degradation of COG by H2O2 and may constitute a sustainable green catalyst for azoic dye removal from industrial wastewaters.

Remediation and its biological responses to Cd(II)-Cr(VI)-Pb(II) multi-contaminated soil by supported nano zero-valent iron composites

Multi-metal contaminated soil has received extensive attention. The biochar and bentonite-supported nano zero-valent iron (nZVI) (BC-BE-nZVI) composite was synthesized in this study by the liquid-phase reduction method. Subsequently, the BC-BE-nZVI composite was applied to immobilize cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), and lead (Pb) in simulated contaminated soil. The simultaneous immobilization efficiencies of Cd, Cr(VI), Cr_total, and Pb were achieved at 70.95 %, 100 %, 86.21 %, and 100 %, respectively. In addition, mobility and bioavailabilities of Cd, Cr, and Pb were significantly decreased and the risk of iron toxicity was reduced. Stabilized metal species in the contaminated soil (e.g., Cd(OH)₂, Cd-Fe-(OH)₂, Cr_xFe_1-xOOH, Cr_xFe_1-x(OH)₃, PbO, PbCrO₄, and Pb(OH)₂) were formed after the BC-BE-nZVI treatment. Thus, the immobilization mechanisms of Cd, Cr, and Pb, including adsorption, reduction, co-precipitation, and complexation co-exist with the metals. More importantly, bacterial richness, bacterial diversity, soil enzyme activities (dehydrogenase, urease, and fluorescein diacetate hydrolase), and microbial activity were enhanced by applying the BC-BE-nZVI composite, thus increasing the soil metabolic function. Over all, this work applied a promising procedure for remediating multi- metal contaminated soil by using the BC-BE-nZVI composite.

Removal of Hexavalent Chromium in Aqueous Solution by Cellulose Filter Paper Loaded with Nano-Zero-Valent Iron: Performance Investigation and Numerical Modeling

Cr(VI) pollution in water bodies is very harmful to human health and the environment. Therefore, it is necessary to remove Cr(VI) from water. In this study, the composite (FP-nZVI) was prepared by loading nano-zero-valent iron (nZVI) onto cellulose filter paper (FP) using a liquid-phase reduction method to improve the dispersibility and oxidation resistance of nZVI. In batch experiments, the effects of iron loading of FP-nZVI, initial concentration of Cr(VI), temperature, and pH on Cr(VI) removal were particularly investigated. The maximum removal rate of 98.6% was achieved at 25 °C, pH = 5, initial concentration of Cr(VI) of 20 mg/L, and FeCl3·6H2O solution concentration of 0.8 mol/L. The removal of Cr(VI) by FP-nZVI conformed to a pseudo-second-order kinetic model and Langmuir isotherm model. The mechanism of Cr(VI) removal was a multi-step removal mechanism, involving adsorption, reduction, and coprecipitation. Column experiments investigated the effect of flow rate (1 mL/min, 3 mL/min, and 5 mL/min) on Cr(VI) removal. We found that increasing flow rate slightly decreased the removal rate of Cr(VI). The transport of Cr(VI) in composite porous media was simulated using HYDRUS-1D, and the results show that the two-site model can well simulate the reactive transport of Cr(VI). This study may provide a useful reference for the remediation of groundwater contaminated with Cr(VI) or other similar heavy metals using FP-nZVI.

Enhanced catalytic activity and stability of composite of cellulose film and nano zero-valent iron on Juncus effusus for activating peroxydisulfate to degrade Rhodamine B dye

In this study, a novel peroxydisulfate (PDS) activator (CF-nZVI-JE) was prepared via in-situ loading nano zero-valent iron (nZVI) on Juncus effusus (JE) followed with wrapping a layer of cellulose film (CF). The CF-nZVI-JE had the same 3D structure as the JE, being easy to separate from aqueous solution. The loaded nZVI existed single nanoparticles with a size of 60-100 nm except chain-type agglomeration of nanoparticles due to the stabilization of JE fibers. The activation performance of the CF-nZVI-JE for PDS was evaluated with Rhodamine B (Rh B) as a representative pollutant. Under the optimal activating conditions, the degradation rate of Rh B reached 99% within 30 min in the CF-nZVI-JE/PDS system. After five cycles, the degradation rate of Rh B was still over 85%, suggesting that the CF-nZVI-JE had good reusability. More interestingly, SO₄^·- and ·OH radicals were simultaneously detected in the CF-nZVI-JE/PDS system, but only SO₄^·- existed in the JE-ZVI/PDS system, suggesting the different activation mechanism. Meanwhile, the introduction of CF not only facilitated to the mineralization of Rh B but also significantly reduced the release amount of iron ions. Hence, the CF-nZVI-JE can be employed as a promising PDS activator for the treatment of organic wastewater.

Trichloroethylene remediation using zero-valent iron with kaolin clay, activated carbon and bacteria

Nanoscale particles of zero-valent iron were used to form a permeable reactive barrier whose performance in dechlorinating a solution of trichloroethylene was compared with that of a barrier formed from limestone. The iron was combined with kaolin by calcination. The test liquid contained sewage sludge, and also added NH₄Cl and KH₂PO₄. The average removal rates of trichloroethylene and phosphorus over 365 days both exceeded 94%. Chemical oxygen demand was reduced by 92% and ammonium nitrogen by 43.6%. All were significantly greater than the removals with the limestone barrier. The ceramsite barrier retained 85% of its effectiveness even after 365 days of use. Dechloromonas sp. was the main dechlorinating bacterium, but its removal ability is limited. The removal of trichloroethylene in such a barrier mainly depends on reduction by the zero-valent iron and biodegradation. The results show that the prepared ceramsite is stable and effective in removing trichloroethylene from water. It is a promising in-situ remediation material for groundwater.

A novel lignin hydrogel supported nZVI for efficient removal of Cr(VI)

A novel hydrogel-supported nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) composite (nZVI@LH) was synthesized by ion exchange and in-situ reduction. The removal efficiency was tested, and the mechanism was also explored. The nZVI@LH at the precursor Fe(II) ion concentration of 0.1 mol/L presented an enhanced Cr(VI) removal capacity of 310.86 mg/g Fe⁰ at pH 5.3, which was 11.6 times more than that of the pure nZVI. The removal efficiency of the composite at pH 2.1 was more than double compared with alkaline or neutral conditions. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) suggested that the nZVI particles were uniformly immobilized in the lignin hydrogel. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) provided evidence supporting the removal mechanism. According to the XPS results, the high removal capacity of the composite was attributed to chemical reduction/precipitation (69.7%), surface sorption (19.7%), and swelling uptake (10.6%). The pseudo-first-order reduction kinetics and pseudo-second-order kinetic model were employed to simulate the kinetic data, which supported the mechanism that chemical reduction and surface sorption could simultaneously remove Cr(VI). The electron acceptor and electron donor affected the reaction rate, and the presence of humic acid significantly inhibited the reaction. The present study demonstrated that lignin hydrogel acted as a carrier to prevent aggregation of nZVI particles. nZVI particles loaded on lignin hydrogel showed high reactivity and high degree of utilization compared with bare-nZVI. These results exhibited the great potential of nZVI@LH in practical water treatment due to its high activity.

Revisiting Glauconite Geochronology: Lessons Learned from In Situ Radiometric Dating of a Glauconite-Rich Cretaceous Shelfal Sequence

The scarcity of well-preserved and directly dateable sedimentary sequences is a major impediment to inferring the Earth’s paleo-environmental evolution. The authigenic mineral glauconite can potentially provide absolute stratigraphic ages for sedimentary sequences and constraints on paleo-depositional conditions. This requires improved approaches for measuring and interpreting glauconite formation ages. Here, glauconite from a Cretaceous shelfal sequence (Langenstein, northern Germany) was characterized using petrographical, geochemical (EMP), andmineralogical (XRD) screening methods before in situ Rb-Sr dating via LA-ICP-MS/MS. The obtained glauconite ages (~101 to 97 Ma) partly overlap with the depositional age of the Langenstein sequence (±3 Ma), but without the expected stratigraphic age progression, which we attribute to detrital and diagenetic illitic phase impurities inside the glauconites. Using a novel age deconvolution approach, which combines the new Rb-Sr dataset with published K-Ar ages, we recalculate the glauconite bulk ages to obtain stratigraphically significant ‘pure’ glauconite ages (~100 to 96 Ma). Thus, our results show that pristine ages can be preserved in mineralogically complex glauconite grains even under burial diagenetic conditions (T < 65 °C; <1500 m depth), confirming that glauconite could be a suitable archive for paleo-environmental reconstructions and direct sediment dating.

Degradation of sulfamethazine in water by sulfite activated with zero-valent Fe-Cu bimetallic nanoparticles

In this work, zero-valent Fe-Cu bimetallic nanoparticles were synthesized using a facile method, and applied to activate sulfite for the degradation of sulfamethazine (SMT) from the aqueous solution. The key factors influencing SMT degradation were investigated, namely the theoretical loading of Cu, Fe-Cu catalyst dosage, sulfite concentration and initial solution pH. The experimental results showed that the Fe-Cu/sulfite system exhibited a much better performance in SMT degradation than the bare Fe⁰/sulfite system. The mechanism and possible degradation pathway of SMT in Fe-Cu/sulfite system were revealed. The reactive radicals that played a dominant role in the SMT degradation process were •OH and SO₄^•-, while the loading of Cu induced the synergistic effect between Fe and Cu. The redox cycle between Cu(I)/Cu(II) remarkably contributed to the conversion of Fe(III) to Fe(II), greatly enhancing the catalytic performance of Fe-Cu bimetal. In real groundwater applications, the Fe-Cu/sulfite system also exhibited satisfactory SMT degradation. The 30-day aging tests of Fe-Cu particles demonstrated that the aging of catalyst was not obviously affecting the removal of SMT. Furthermore, the reusability of catalyst was evidenced by the recycling experiments. This study provides a promising application of bimetal activated sulfite for enhanced contaminant degradation in groundwater.

Impact of green clay authigenesis on element sequestration in marine settings

Retrograde clay mineral reactions (reverse weathering), including glauconite formation, are first-order controls on element sequestration in marine sediments. Here, we report substantial element sequestration by glauconite formation in shallow marine settings from the Triassic to the Holocene, averaging 3 ± 2 mmol·cm⁻²·kyr⁻¹ for K, Mg and Al, 16 ± 9 mmol·cm⁻²·kyr⁻¹ for Si and 6 ± 3 mmol·cm⁻²·kyr⁻¹ for Fe, which is ~2 orders of magnitude higher than estimates for deep-sea settings. Upscaling of glauconite abundances in shallow-water (0–200 m) environments predicts a present-day global uptake of ~≤ 0.1 Tmol·yr⁻¹ of K, Mg and Al, and ~0.1–0.4 Tmol·yr⁻¹ of Fe and Si, which is ~half of the estimated Mesozoic elemental flux. Clay mineral authigenesis had a large impact on the global marine element cycles throughout Earth’s history, in particular during ‘greenhouse’ periods with sea level highstand, and is key for better understanding past and present geochemical cycling in marine sediments.

Here the authors show that reverse weathering reactions, such as the formation of glauconite minerals, are first-order controls on element sequestration in shallow marine sediments throughout Earth history, in particular during greenhouse periods with sea level highstand.

Superior elimination of Cr(VI) using polydopamine functionalized attapulgite supported nZVI composite: Behavior and mechanism

In this study, a polydopamine (PDA) modified attapulgite (ATP) supported nano sized zero-valent iron (nZVI) composite (PDA/ATP-nZVI) was rapidly synthesized under acidic conditions, and employed to alleviate Cr(VI) toxicity from an aqueous solution. Kinetic studies revealed that Cr(VI) adsorption process followed the pseudo-second order model, suggesting chemisorption was the dominant adsorption mechanism. Liu isotherm adsorption model was able to better describe the Cr(VI) adsorption isotherm with the maximum adsorption capacity of 134.05 mg/g. The thermodynamic study demonstrated that the adsorption process occurred spontaneously, accompanied by the increase in entropy and endothermic reaction. Low concentrations of coexisting ions had negligible effects on the removal of Cr(VI), while high concentrations of interfering ions were able to facilitate the removal of Cr(VI). Reactive species test revealed that Fe²⁺ played a key role in Cr(VI) reduction by PDA/ATP-nZVI. PDA enhanced the elimination of Cr(VI) via donation of electrons to Cr(VI) and acceleration of Fe³⁺ transformation to Fe²⁺. Furthermore, PDA was able to effectively inhibit the leaching of iron species and generation of ferric hydroxide sludge. Mechanistic study revealed that 72% of Cr(VI) elimination was attributed to reduction/precipitation, while 28% of Cr(VI) elimination was due to the surface adsorption.