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da Silva Junior ALS, Santana GM, Nascimento MM, Cunha RL, Mesquita PRR, de Jesus RM. Illicit drugs in Brazil: environmental consequences and consumption patterns. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:47530-47551. [PMID: 39031313 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-34183-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 06/26/2024] [Indexed: 07/22/2024]
Abstract
This article reviews the literature on the consumption, street drug analysis, distribution, and main environmental impacts of illicit drugs in Brazil and analyzes the III National Survey on Drug Use by the Brazilian Population. The literature review is based on articles published in national and international journals between 2018 and 2023. This review consists of two analyses, the first of which addresses publications from the last 6 years on the monitoring of illicit drugs in Brazil and a second analysis based on the III National Survey on Drug Use that addresses the different possibilities of contact with drugs. The results revealed that the Southeast region of Brazil has the highest number of studies on the subject, especially in the state of São Paulo, while the North and Northeast regions have the lowest number of studies. The Midwest regions only have studies in the federal capital city, Brasília, while no studies were found in states bordering countries that produce illicit drugs, such as Paraguay and Bolivia. Analytical methods that use the concept of miniaturization, green chemistry, and the adoption of acceptance methods are frequent in most articles. Chemometric and statistical tools are widely used for the analysis, development, and conclusion of identification and quantification methods. Among the articles studied, there was a predominance in the analysis of cocaine metabolites and cannabis metabolites in the aquatic environment, where their concentrations ranged from 0.01 to 2000 ng L-1. Studies also reported bioaccumulation in marine biota with concentrations of up to 4.58 µg kg-1 for mussels and sediments, posing a risk to algae, crustaceans, and fish. Furthermore, the data show that the consumption of illicit drugs is increasing in Brazil, especially among young people.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Luiz Sampaio da Silva Junior
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Desenvolvimento E Meio Ambiente, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz (UESC), Rodovia Jorge Amado, Km 16, Ilhéus, BA, 45662-900, Brazil
| | - Gregório Mateus Santana
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Desenvolvimento E Meio Ambiente, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz (UESC), Rodovia Jorge Amado, Km 16, Ilhéus, BA, 45662-900, Brazil
| | - Madson Moreira Nascimento
- Centro Universitário SENAI CIMATEC, Av. Orlando Gomes, 1845-Piatã, Salvador, BA, 41650-010, Brazil
- Centro Tecnológico Agropecuário Do Estado da Bahia (CETAB), Secretaria da Agricultura, Pecuária, Irrigação, Pesca e Aquicultura-SEAGRI, Av. Milton Santos, 967, Salvador, BA, 40170-110, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Leal Cunha
- Laboratório de Toxicologia Forense, Instituto de Análises E Pesquisas Forenses (IAPF), Polícia Científica, São Cristóvão, SE, 49100-000, Brazil
| | - Paulo Roberto Ribeiro Mesquita
- Departamento de Ciências Exatas E Tecnológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rod. Jorge Amado, Km 16, Ilhéus, BA, 45662-900, Brazil
| | - Raildo Mota de Jesus
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Desenvolvimento E Meio Ambiente, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz (UESC), Rodovia Jorge Amado, Km 16, Ilhéus, BA, 45662-900, Brazil.
- Departamento de Ciências Exatas E Tecnológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz (UESC), Rodovia Jorge Amado, Km 16, Ilhéus, BA, 45662-900, Brazil.
- Centro Tecnológico Agropecuário Do Estado da Bahia (CETAB), Secretaria da Agricultura, Pecuária, Irrigação, Pesca e Aquicultura-SEAGRI, Av. Milton Santos, 967, Salvador, BA, 40170-110, Brazil.
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Andrade HND, Oliveira JFD, Siniscalchi LAB, Costa JDD, Fia R. Global insight into the occurrence, treatment technologies and ecological risk of emerging contaminants in sanitary sewers: Effects of the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus pandemic. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 921:171075. [PMID: 38402973 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic caused changes in the consumption of prescribed/non-prescribed drugs and the population's habits, influencing the detection and concentration of emerging contaminants (ECs) in sanitary sewage and harming environmental and health risks. Therefore, the present work sought to discuss current literature data on the effects of the "COVID-19 pandemic factor" on the quality of raw sewage produced over a five-year period (2018-2019: pre-pandemic; 2020-2022: during the pandemic) and biological, physical, chemical and hybrid treatment technologies, influencing factors in the removal of ECs and potential ecological risks (RQs). Seven hundred thirty-one publications correlating sewage and COVID-19 were identified: 184 pre-pandemic and 547 during the pandemic. Eight classes and 37 ECs were detected in sewage between 2018 and 2022, with the "COVID-19 pandemic factor" promoting an increase in estrogens (+31,775 %), antibiotics (+19,544 %), antiepileptics and antipsychotics (+722 %), pesticides (+200 %), analgesics, anti-inflammatories and anticoagulants (+173 %), and stimulant medications (+157 %) in sanitary sewage. Among the treatment systems, aerated reactors integrated into biomembranes removed >90 % of cephalexin, clarithromycin, ibuprofen, estrone, and 17β-estradiol. The absorption, adsorption, and biodegradation mechanisms of planted wetland systems contributed to better cost-benefit in reducing the polluting load of sewage ECs in the COVID-19 pandemic, individually or integrated into the WWTP. The COVID-19 pandemic factor increased the potential ecological risks (RQs) for aquatic organisms by 40 %, with emphasis on clarithromycin and sulfamethoxazole, which changed from negligible risk and low risk to (very) high risk and caffeine with RQ > 2500. Therefore, it is possible to suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic intensified physiological, metabolic, and physical changes to different organisms in aquatic biota by ECs during 2020 and 2022.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heloisa Nascimento de Andrade
- Department of Engineering and Technology, Federal University of the Semi-Arid Region, UFERSA, Pau dos Ferros, Rio Grande do Norte 59900-000, Brazil
| | - Jacineumo Falcão de Oliveira
- Department of Engineering and Technology, Federal University of the Semi-Arid Region, UFERSA, Pau dos Ferros, Rio Grande do Norte 59900-000, Brazil.
| | | | - Joseane Dunga da Costa
- Department of Engineering and Technology, Federal University of the Semi-Arid Region, UFERSA, Pau dos Ferros, Rio Grande do Norte 59900-000, Brazil
| | - Ronaldo Fia
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Federal University of Lavras, UFLA, Minas Gerais 37200-000, Brazil
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Tomsone LE, Neilands R, Kokina K, Bartkevics V, Pugajeva I. Pharmaceutical and Recreational Drug Usage Patterns during and Post COVID-19 Determined by Wastewater-Based Epidemiology. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2024; 21:206. [PMID: 38397695 PMCID: PMC10888181 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph21020206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) was applied to evaluate the consumption trends of pharmaceuticals (i.e., antibiotics, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, antiepileptics, antihypertensives, and others), as well as recreational drugs (caffeine, alcohol, and nicotine), in Latvia from December 2020 to July 2023. The time period covers both the COVID-19 pandemic and the post-pandemic periods; therefore, the impact of the implemented restrictions and the consequences of the illness in terms of the usage of pharmaceuticals thereon were investigated. Additionally, the seasonality and impact of the seasonal flu and other acute upper respiratory infections were studied. The results revealed that the pandemic impacted the consumption of alcohol, nicotine, and caffeine, as well as several pharmaceuticals, such as antihypertensives, antidepressants, psychiatric drugs, and the painkiller ibuprofen. The findings suggest that the imposed restrictions during the pandemic may have had a negative effect on the population's health and mental well-being. Distinct seasonal trends were discovered in the consumption patterns of caffeine and alcohol, where lower use was observed during the summer. The seasonal consumption trends of pharmaceuticals were discovered in the case of antibiotics, the antiasthmatic drug salbutamol, and the decongestant xylometazoline, where higher consumption occurred during colder seasons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Elina Tomsone
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment “BIOR”, Lejupes Street 3, LV-1076 Riga, Latvia; (L.E.T.)
| | - Romans Neilands
- Faculty of Natural Sciences and Technology, Riga Technical University, Kipsalas Street 6B, LV-1048 Riga, Latvia
| | - Kristina Kokina
- Faculty of Natural Sciences and Technology, Riga Technical University, Kipsalas Street 6B, LV-1048 Riga, Latvia
| | - Vadims Bartkevics
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment “BIOR”, Lejupes Street 3, LV-1076 Riga, Latvia; (L.E.T.)
| | - Iveta Pugajeva
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment “BIOR”, Lejupes Street 3, LV-1076 Riga, Latvia; (L.E.T.)
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Lizot LDLF, Bastiani MF, Hahn RZ, Meireles YF, Freitas M, Bondan AP, do Nascimento CA, Quevedo DM, Linden R. Risk assessment of a Brazilian urban population due to the exposure to pyrethroid insecticides during the COVID-19 pandemic using wastewater-based epidemiology. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 345:140526. [PMID: 37879376 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
Pyrethroids are synthetic insecticides commonly used in agriculture and homes due to their low toxicity to mammals and effectiveness at low doses. However, exposure to pyrethroids can cause various symptoms, depending on the route of exposure. To measure human exposure to pyrethroids, researchers used wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) with polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS) sampling. This approach is a cost-effective and efficient way to assess exposure to pyrethroids. The study aimed to evaluate the exposure of an urban population in Brazil to pyrethroids during the COVID-19 pandemic using WBE with POCIS sampling. Researchers analyzed 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA) in wastewater using passive sampling with POCIS, which was extracted with methanol and analyzed using UPLC-MS/MS. The range of CTWA concentrations of 3-PBA in wastewater was 24.3-298.2 ng L-1, with a mean value of 134 ± 76.5 ng L-1. The values were used to estimate the exposure of the population to pyrethroid insecticides. Three different conversion factors were applied to determine the range of exposure to at least 20 different pyrethroid insecticides. The exposure values ranged from 18.08 to 1441.49 mg day-1 per 1000 inhabitants. The toxicological risk posed to the exposed population was evaluated by calculating the WBE toxicological level (WBE-TL). Lambda-cyhalothrin was used as a reference for risk assessment, and the WBE-TL values for lambda-cyhalothrin ranged from 0.5 to 8.29 (considering the high CF). We compared mobility trends to 3-PBA exposure during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study highlighted the effectiveness of POCIS sampling in WBE and provided useful information for policymakers and regulatory agencies. POCIS sampling has practical advantages, including analyte pre-concentration, low operational cost, and ease of use. Overall, the study shows the importance of monitoring and understanding the exposure of the population to pyrethroid insecticides, especially during the pandemic when people may be spending more time at home.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilian de Lima Feltraco Lizot
- Laboratory of Analytical Toxicology, Universidade Feevale, Rua Rubem Berta, 200, CEP 93525-080, Novo Hamburgo, Brazil; Graduate Program on Environmental Quality, Universidade Feevale, Rodovia RS 239, 2755, CEP 93525-075, Novo Hamburgo, Brazil
| | - Marcos Frank Bastiani
- Laboratory of Analytical Toxicology, Universidade Feevale, Rua Rubem Berta, 200, CEP 93525-080, Novo Hamburgo, Brazil; Graduate Program on Environmental Quality, Universidade Feevale, Rodovia RS 239, 2755, CEP 93525-075, Novo Hamburgo, Brazil
| | - Roberta Zilles Hahn
- Laboratory of Analytical Toxicology, Universidade Feevale, Rua Rubem Berta, 200, CEP 93525-080, Novo Hamburgo, Brazil
| | - Yasmin Fazenda Meireles
- Laboratory of Analytical Toxicology, Universidade Feevale, Rua Rubem Berta, 200, CEP 93525-080, Novo Hamburgo, Brazil
| | - Mariana Freitas
- Laboratory of Analytical Toxicology, Universidade Feevale, Rua Rubem Berta, 200, CEP 93525-080, Novo Hamburgo, Brazil
| | - Amanda Pacheco Bondan
- Laboratory of Analytical Toxicology, Universidade Feevale, Rua Rubem Berta, 200, CEP 93525-080, Novo Hamburgo, Brazil
| | - Carlos Augusto do Nascimento
- Department of Production Engineering, Faculdades Integradas de Taquara, Av. Oscar Martins Rangel, 4500, CEP 95612-150, Taquara, Brazil
| | - Daniela Muller Quevedo
- Graduate Program on Environmental Quality, Universidade Feevale, Rodovia RS 239, 2755, CEP 93525-075, Novo Hamburgo, Brazil
| | - Rafael Linden
- Laboratory of Analytical Toxicology, Universidade Feevale, Rua Rubem Berta, 200, CEP 93525-080, Novo Hamburgo, Brazil; Graduate Program on Environmental Quality, Universidade Feevale, Rodovia RS 239, 2755, CEP 93525-075, Novo Hamburgo, Brazil.
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Boogaerts T, Quireyns M, De Loof H, Bertels X, Van Wichelen N, Pussig B, Saevels J, Lahousse L, Bonmariage P, Hamelinck W, Aertgeerts B, Covaci A, van Nuijs ALN. Do the lockdown-imposed changes in a wastewater treatment plant catchment's socio-demographics impact longitudinal temporal trends in psychoactive pharmaceutical use? THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 876:162342. [PMID: 36842581 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) includes the analysis of human metabolic biomarkers of xenobiotics in influent wastewater. WBE complements existing drug utilization approaches and provides objective, spatio-temporal information on the consumption of pharmaceuticals in the general population. This approach was applied to 24-h composite influent wastewater samples from Leuven, Belgium. Daily samples were analysed from September 2019 to December 2019 (n = 76), and on three days of the week (Monday, Wednesday, Saturday) from January 2020 to April 2022 (n = 367). Sample analysis consisted of 96-well solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. Measured concentrations of 21 biomarkers for antidepressant and opioid use were converted to population-normalized mass loads (PNML) by considering the flow rate and catchment population. To capture population movements, mobile phone data was used. Amitriptyline, hydroxy-bupropion, norcitalopram, citalopram, normirtazapine, trazodone, O-desmethylvenlafaxine, codeine, 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP), methadone, morphine, O-desmethyltramadol, and tramadol were included in the temporal assessment since concentrations were above the lower limit of quantification. The PNML of most biomarkers increased (with 3-119 %) throughout the sampling period. The population disruption during the COVID-19 pandemic led to a major change in the socio-demographics of the catchment area, resulting in temporal differences in the PNML of the different biomarkers. As such, higher PNML were observed during the different lockdown phases, which were characterized by the outflow of university students and a decreasing commuting in and out the catchment area. The effects of the fluctuating socio-demographics of the catchment population were further evidenced by the different week-weekend pattern of PNMLs over the course of the sampling campaign. Mean parent/metabolite ratios (i.e., citalopram/norcitalopram, tramadol/O-desmethyltramadol, venlafaxine/O-desmethylvenlafaxine, and methadone/EDDP) remained relatively stable throughout the entire sampling campaign (RSD% below 25 % for all ratios, except for methadone/EDDP) and therefore were not affected by this population change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Boogaerts
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium.
| | - Maarten Quireyns
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Hans De Loof
- Laboratory of Physiopharmacology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Xander Bertels
- Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Natan Van Wichelen
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Bram Pussig
- Academic Center for General Practice, Kapucijnenvoer 7, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jan Saevels
- Association of Pharmacists in Belgium (APB), Rue Stevin 137, 1000 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Lies Lahousse
- Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Pauline Bonmariage
- Association of Pharmacists in Belgium (APB), Rue Stevin 137, 1000 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Wouter Hamelinck
- Association of Pharmacists in Belgium (APB), Rue Stevin 137, 1000 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Bert Aertgeerts
- Academic Center for General Practice, Kapucijnenvoer 7, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
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de Oliveira AFB, de Melo Vieira A, Santos JM. Trends and challenges in analytical chemistry for multi-analysis of illicit drugs employing wastewater-based epidemiology. Anal Bioanal Chem 2023:10.1007/s00216-023-04644-4. [PMID: 36952026 PMCID: PMC10034891 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-023-04644-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 03/04/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/24/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) for quantification of illicit drug biomarkers (IDBs) in wastewater samples is an effective tool that can provide information about drug consumption. The most commonly quantified IDBs belong to different chemical classes, including cocaine, amphetamine-type stimulants, opioids, and cannabinoids, so the different chemical properties of these molecules pose a challenge in the development of analytical methods for multi-analyte analysis. Recent workflows include the steps of sampling and storage, sample preparation using solid-phase extraction (SPE) or without extraction, and quantification of analytes employing gas or liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The greatest difficulty is due to the fact that wastewater samples are complex chemical mixtures containing analytes with different chemical properties, often present at low concentrations. Therefore, in the development of analytical methods, there is the need to simplify and optimize the analytical workflows, reducing associated uncertainties, analysis times, and costs. The present work provides a critical bibliographic survey of studies published from the year 2020 until now, highlighting the challenges and trends of published analytical workflows for the multi-analysis of IDBs in wastewater samples, considering sampling and sample preparation, method validation, and analytical techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Flávia Barbosa de Oliveira
- Petroleum, Energy and Mass Spectrometry Research Group (PEM), Chemistry Department, Federal Rural University of Pernambuco (UFRPE), Recife, PE, 52171-900, Brazil
| | - Aline de Melo Vieira
- Petroleum, Energy and Mass Spectrometry Research Group (PEM), Chemistry Department, Federal Rural University of Pernambuco (UFRPE), Recife, PE, 52171-900, Brazil
| | - Jandyson Machado Santos
- Petroleum, Energy and Mass Spectrometry Research Group (PEM), Chemistry Department, Federal Rural University of Pernambuco (UFRPE), Recife, PE, 52171-900, Brazil.
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