Occurrence and analytical methods of acrylamide in heat-treated foods. Review and recent developments

Development and validation of LC-MS/MS method for trace analysis of acrylamide, acrylic acid and N, N-methylene bis acrylamide in sandy loam soil

Acrylamide and N, N-methylene bis acrylamide are most commonly used monomer and crosslinker compounds employed in synthesis of super absorbent hydrogels. When applied as soil conditioners, there are apprehensions that these hydrogels degrade over time and thus may release the toxic monomers in the soil. A method was thus developed using Liquid Chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for the trace level quantification of acrylamide (AD), acrylic acid (AA) and N,N-methylene-bis-acrylamide (MBA) in sandy loam soil amended by two test hydrogels the Pusa Hydrogel and SPG 1118 hydrogel prepared using AD and MBA. The MRM (multiple reaction monitoring) transitions were optimized for both the compounds. Soil samples were extracted using dispersive solid-phase extraction (dSPE) with a modified QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe) technique, employing acetonitrile. All analytes were quantified at trace levels within a five-minute run using UHPLC equipped with a C-18 column. Single laboratory validation of the developed method in soil matrix was conducted based on specificity, linearity, sensitivity, accuracy, precision, matrix effect and measurement of uncertainty. LC-MS/MS exhibited a linear response in the concentration range of 0.001 to 1 µg mL-1, with correlation coefficient >+0.99. Acceptable recovery (within 70-120 %) with repeatability (%RSD ≤20 %) was obtained at 0.01 to 1 µg g-1 fortification levels. LOQ (Limit of quantification) of the method for AD, AA and MBA in soil matrix were 0.05, 1 and 0.01 µg g-1, respectively. Both intra-laboratory repeatability and intermediate precision at LOQ suggested well acceptable precise (HorRat≈ 0.3) method for quantification. Matrix enhancement effect was observed in the order: AA>AD>MBA. The Expanded Uncertainty (EU) in soil matrix at LOQ was 21.64 %, 28 % and 19 % for AD, AA and MBA respectively. Groundnut and wheat grown with application of the hydrogels showed no detectable residues of monomers in soil samples (total n = 60) near the root zone at the time of crop harvesting.

Acrylamide in potato chips in Iran, health risk assessment and mitigation

This study aimed to determine the acrylamide content in potato chips sold in Kermanshah, Iran and assess the potential health concerns associated with acrylamide exposure. HPLC-DAD was used to analyse 120 samples across 40 brands. The possible non-carcinogenic risk index for adults was below 1 for all 40 brands (100%), but for children it was only below 1 for 9 brands (22.5%) and above 1 for 31 brands (77.5%). Regarding the possible carcinogenic risk index, for adults only 1 out of 40 brands rated > 10-4, whereas for children all brands rated > 10-4. This shows that children's exposure to acrylamide through potato chips consumption in Kermanshah can be considered a risk on cancer and exposure of adults requires attention and monitoring. The best way to reduce acrylamide in potato chips and associated health risks is to improve the production process, especially temperature and time.

Effects of kiwi fruit (Actinidia chinensis) polysaccharides on metabolites and gut microbiota of acrylamide-induced mice

Introduction

Kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis) has rich nutritious and medicinal properties. It is widely consumed worldwide for the intervention of metabolism disorders, however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Acrylamide, a well-known toxic ingredient, mainly forms in high-temperature processed carbohydrate-rich food and causes disorders of gut microbiota and systemic metabolism.

Methods

This study explored the protective effects and underlying mechanisms of kiwifruit polysaccharides against acrylamide-induced disorders of gut microbiota and systemic metabolism by measuring the changes of gut microbiota and serum metabolites in mice.

Results

The results showed that kiwifruit polysaccharides remarkably alleviated acrylamide-induced toxicity in mice by improving their body features, histopathologic morphology of the liver, and decreased activities of liver function enzymes. Furthermore, the treatment restored the healthy gut microbiota of mice by improving the microbial diversity and abundance of beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacillus. Metabolomics analysis revealed the positive effects of kiwifruit polysaccharides mainly occurred through amino and bile acid-related metabolism pathways including nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolism, primary bile acid biosynthesis, and alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism. Additionally, correlation analysis indicated that Lactobacillus exhibited a highly significant correlation with critical metabolites of bile acid metabolism.

Discussion

Concisely, kiwifruit polysaccharides may protect against acrylamide-induced toxicity by regulating gut microbiota and metabolism.

Review on Acrylamide: A Hidden Hazard in Fried Carbohydrate-Rich Food

Abstract:

Acrylamide is classified as a hazard whose formation in carbohydrate-rich food cooked at a high temperature has created much interest in the scientific community. The review attempts to comprehend the chemistry and mechanisms of formation of acrylamide and its levels in popular foods. A detailed study of the toxicokinetic and biochemistry, carcinogenicity, neurotoxicity, genotoxicity, interaction with biomolecules, and its effects on reproductive health has been presented. The review outlines the various novel and low-cost conventional as well as newer analytical techniques for the detection of acrylamide in foods with the maximum permissible limits. Various effective approaches that can be undertaken in industries and households for the mitigation of levels of acrylamide in foods have also been discussed. This review will assist to provide in depth understanding about acrylamide that will make it simpler to assess the risk to human health from the consumption of foods containing low amounts of acrylamide.

The effect of Hippophae rhamnoides L. extract on acrylamideinduced brain injury in rats

Purpose:

Reactive oxygen species (ROS), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) have been shown in the pathogenesis of acrylamide neurotoxicity. Hippophae rhamnoides L. extract (HRE) has a cytoprotective effect by stabilizing the production of ROS, IL-1β and TNF-α. The objective of the article was to investigate the effect of HRE on acrylamide-induced brain damage in rats biochemically and histopathologically.

Methods:

To the HRE+acrylamide only (ACR) group (n=6) of the animals, HRE was administered orally at a dose of 50 mg / kg into the stomach by gavage. The same volume of solvent (olive oil) was administered orally to the ACR (n=6) and healthy (HG) (n=6) groups. One hour after HRE administration, acrylamide was given orally at a dose of 20 mg/kg to HRE+ACR and ACR groups in the same way. This procedure was repeated once a day for 30 days. At the end of this period, brain tissues extracted from animals killed with 50 mg/kg thiopental anesthesia were examined biochemically and histopathologically.

Results:

It has been shown that HRE prevents the increase of malondialdehyde (MDA), myeloperoxidase (MPO), IL-1β and TNF-α with acrylamide and the decrease of total glutathione (tGSH) and glutathione reductase (GSHRd) levels in brain tissue.

Conclusions:

HRE may be useful in the treatment of acrylamide-induced neurotoxicity.

Electrospun Membrane for the Extraction of Acrylamide in Pet Food Samples

A simple microextraction procedure was developed using an electrospun nanostructured membrane to determine acrylamide in pet food samples. Polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl alcohol, and polyvinyl alcohol/hydroxyethyl cellulose electrospun membranes were prepared and investigated as a sorbent to extract acrylamide. The characterization of the synthesized electrospun membrane was accomplished using field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). FESEM images showed uniform morphology and beadless nanofibers. Quantification was done by high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection. A series of microextraction parameters were optimized before quantitative analysis of dry pet food samples. The calibration curve exhibited good linearity with a correlation coefficient of 0.996 across a 1–100 μg/kg concentration range. The recovery of acrylamide for pet food samples spiked with 5 and 10 μg/kg was in the range of 79.6–113.9 (n = 3). The intraday precision of the method was less than 12% for three replicated real spiked samples at the 5 μg/kg level. The results demonstrated that the electrospun nanostructured membrane has good extraction selectivity and minimal matrix effect with an enrichment factor of 180-fold.

Acrylamide in bread: a review on formation, health risk assessment, and determination by analytical techniques

Acrylamide is a water-soluble toxicant found in high-protein and carbohydrate-containing foods exposed to high temperature like bread as the staple foodstuff. This toxicant is mainly formed via Maillard reaction. The potential adverse effects of acrylamide especially possible carcinogenicity in human through dietary exposure necessitate its monitoring. Regarding the existence of its precursors in wheat bread formulation as well as extreme consumption of bread by most population and diversity of bread types, its acrylamide level needs to be investigated. The indicative value for acrylamide in wheat bread is set at 80 μg/kg. Consequently, its determination using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), or capillary electrophoresis can be helpful considering both the risk assessment and quality control aspects. In this respect, methods based on LC-MS/MS show good recovery and within laboratory repeatability with a limit of detection of 3-20 μg/kg and limit of quantification of 10-50 μg/kg which is suitable for the immediate requirements for food product monitoring and calculation of consumer exposure.

Acrylamide-induced peripheral neuropathy: manifestations, mechanisms, and potential treatment modalities

Acrylamide is a chemical monomer; its polymer compounds are used in the manufacture of plastic, papers, adhesive tapes, dyes, and food packaging. Lately, scientists found that cooking (mainly roasting, baking, and frying) yields acrylamide. In addition to fried/baked potatoes, coffee and bakery products still contain substantial amounts of acrylamide. Acrylamide has toxic effects on different body systems include genitourinary, reproductive, nervous system, along with being a carcinogenic substance. The neurotoxicity of acrylamide includes central and peripheral neuropathy. In humans, the clinical manifestations include sensory or motor peripheral neuropathy, drowsiness, or cerebellar ataxia. Likewise, it presents with skeletal muscle weakness, hindlimb dysfunction, ataxia, and weight loss in animals. The suggested mechanisms for acrylamide neurotoxicity include direct inhibition of neurotransmission, cellular changes, inhibition of key cellular enzymes, and bonding of kinesin-based fast axonal transport. Moreover, it is suggested that acrylamide's molecular effect on SNARE core kinetics is carried out through the adduction of NSF and/or SNARE proteins. Lately, scientists showed disruption of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and proline-rich tyrosine kinase 2 (Pyk2) cell signaling pathways in human differentiating neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells, exposed to acrylamide. Different treatment modalities have been revealed to shield against or hasten recovery from acrylamide-induced neuropathy in preclinical studies, including phytochemical, biological, and vitamin-based compounds. Still, additional studies are needed to elucidate the pathogenesis and to identify the best treatment modality.

Comprehensive Study on the Acrylamide Content of High Thermally Processed Foods

Acrylamide (AA) formation in starch-based processed foods at elevated temperatures is a serious health issue as it is a toxic and carcinogenic substance. However, the formation of more AA entangles with modern-day fast food industries, and a considerable amount of this ingredient is being consumed by fast food eaters inadvertently throughout the world. This article reviews the factors responsible for AA formation pathways, investigation techniques of AA, toxicity, and health-related issues followed by mitigation methods that have been studied in the past few decades comprehensively. Predominantly, AA and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) are produced via the Maillard reaction and can be highlighted as the major heat-induced toxins formulated in bread and bakery products. Epidemiological studies have shown that there is a strong relationship between AA accumulation in the body and the increased risk of cancers. The scientific community is still in a dearth of technology in producing AA-free starch-protein-fat-based thermally processed food products. Therefore, this paper may facilitate the food scientists to their endeavor in developing mitigation techniques pertaining to the formation of AA and HMF in baked foods in the future.

Effect of Microwave Heating on the Acrylamide Formation in Foods

Acrylamide (AA) is a neurotoxic and carcinogenic substance that has recently been discovered in food. One of the factors affecting its formation is the heat treatment method. This review discusses the microwave heating as one of the methods of thermal food processing and the influence of microwave radiation on the acrylamide formation in food. In addition, conventional and microwave heating were compared, especially the way they affect the AA formation in food. Available studies demonstrate differences in the mechanisms of microwave and conventional heating. These differences may be beneficial or detrimental depending on different processes. The published studies showed that microwave heating at a high power level can cause greater AA formation in products than conventional food heat treatment. The higher content of acrylamide in microwave-heated foods may be due to differences in its formation during microwave heating and conventional methods. At the same time, short exposure to microwaves (during blanching and thawing) at low power may even limit the formation of acrylamide during the final heat treatment. Considering the possible harmful effects of microwave heating on food quality (e.g., intensive formation of acrylamide), further research in this direction should be carried out.

A Review on Acrylamide in Food: Occurrence, Toxicity, and Mitigation Strategies

Acrylamide (AA) is a food contaminant present in a wide range of frequently consumed foods, which makes human exposure to this toxicant unfortunately unavoidable. However, efforts to reduce the formation of AA in food have resulted in some success. This review aims to summarize the occurrence of AA and the potential mitigation strategies of its formation in foods. Formation of AA in foods is mainly linked to Maillard reaction, which is the first feasible route that can be manipulated to reduce AA formation. Furthermore, manipulating processing conditions such as time and temperature of the heating process, and including certain preheating treatments such as soaking and blanching, can further reduce AA formation. Due to the high exposure to AA, recognition of its toxic effect is necessary, especially in developing countries where awareness about AA health risks is still very low. Therefore, this review also focuses on the different toxic effects of AA exposure, including neurotoxicity, genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, reproductive toxicity, hepatotoxicity, and immunotoxicity.

Comparative Study of Four Analytical Methods for the Routine Determination of Acrylamide in Black Ripe Olives

Reducing acrylamide in foods is an important scientific and regulatory goal. Black ripe olives contain significant levels of acrylamide. However, unlike cereal and potato products, there are no standardized methods or certified reference materials for olives and no harmonization between laboratories performing routine analyses. The industry has observed inconsistencies between laboratories using different analytical methods. To narrow the cause of this variability, acrylamide was extracted from olives using a single protocol and analyzed with the most commonly used routine methods: liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection (LC-UV) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) without bromination and LC-UV and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) following bromination. This design specifically evaluated the effects of sample derivatization and detector on acrylamide measurements, which has not been documented for any food. Accuracy, precision, sensitivity, linearity, and reproducibility were assessed, and 10 commercial olive samples were analyzed. LC-MS/MS demonstrated the best overall performance. Although derivatization decreased precision and reproducibility, all detection methods had comparable accuracy and calculated acrylamide values. The results suggest that harmonization of extraction protocols across laboratories is the most important area of future study. This study provides the framework for a standardized method for acrylamide analysis in olives. Reliable measurements are essential for aiding the decision making of the industry and regulatory agencies.

Straightforward and rapid determination of acrylamide in coffee beans by means of HS-SPME/GC-MS

A straightforward and rapid preparation procedure for the extraction of the acrylamide from coffee beans, by means of the volatile silylated derivatives of acrylamide (AA) and headspace solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) is described. Commercially available SPME fibre coated with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) was used. The silylation reactions of the AA were executed with N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (BSTFA). The deuterium labelled d₃-acrylamide was used as an internal standard. The acrylamide level was quantified using gas chromatography coupled with the mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in the selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode. The limit of quantification (LOQ) for measuring acrylamide was 3 µg/kg. The described method demonstrates satisfactory repeatability (RSD = 2.6%), with an intermediate precision (RSD = 9.4%) and recovery (99-105%).

Effects of Formulation and Baking Process on Acrylamide Formation in Kolompeh, a Traditional Cookie in Iran

Thermal treatments and recipes are two critical aspects for the formation of acrylamide at ordinary household cooking conditions and industrial level. Kolompeh is a traditional Iranian cookie, and the aim of this study was to monitor acrylamide formation in four different recipes: traditional sugary Kolompeh (TSK), traditional simple Kolompeh (TSIK), industrial sugary Kolompeh (ISK), and industrial simple Kolompeh (ISIK). Along with the measurement of reducing sugars, moisture, and pH, acrylamide was quantified by gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Results indicated that acrylamide content was 1758, 1048, 888, and 560 μg/kg for TSK, TSIK, ISK, and ISIK, respectively, revealing that the kind of thermal treatment in combination with higher concentrations of reducing sugars were the major driver for acrylamide formation. In particular, acrylamide concentration in TSIK direct heating was 1.87 times higher than industrial indirect heating treatment, highlighting that domestic preparation of Kolompeh required a specific attention as a source of potential toxic molecule formation.

Therapeutic potential of quercetin against acrylamide induced toxicity in rats

Acrylamide (AA) is found in foods containing carbohydrates and proteins, where it is formed during the heating process. It is classified as neurotoxic and probably carcinogenic to humans. The present investigation was aimed to determine the lethal Dose (LD₅₀) of AA and to evaluate the protective effects of quercetin (QE) against AA induced adverse effects in rats. For the determination of LD₅₀, AA was administered orally at four different doses (46.4mg/kg, 100mg/kg, 215mg/kg and 464mg/kg) to experimental animals for seven days. After 7days LD₅₀ of AA was determined using graphical method of Miller and Tainter. Then AA was administered at 1/3rd dose of LD₅₀ (38.27mgkg^-1 body weight; p.o. for 10 days) followed by the therapy of QE (5, 10, 20 and 40mg kg^-1 orally), for 3 consecutive days for the determination of protective effect of QE against AA. The estimated LD₅₀ of AA was 114.81mg/kg with 95% confidence interval. Exposure to AA 1/3rd dose of LD₅₀ for 10days induced neurotoxicity which was confirmed by decreased acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity. AA substantially increased lipid peroxidation (LPO), decreased the level of reduced glutathione (GSH) and antioxidant enzymes (SOD and CAT) in liver, kidney and brain. It also increased the activities of serum transaminases, urea, uric acid, creatinine, lipid profile, bilirubin in serum. Treatment with QE restored tissue and serological indices concomitantly towards normal levels. These results revealed that QE is able to significantly alleviate the toxicity induced by AA in rats.

Farnesol quells oxidative stress, reactive gliosis and inflammation during acrylamide-induced neurotoxicity: Behavioral and biochemical evidence

Acrylamide (ACR) is an industrial pollutant, to which humans are exposed through chemicals associated with day to day human life and contributes to neurological disorders. The role of reactive gliosis upon toxic insults remains paradoxical, and the immunomodulatory events during ACR intoxication remain obscure. In view of this, the present study investigated ACR-induced (20mg/kgb.wt for 4weeks) neurodegeneration in the context of oxidative stress and associated inflammatory events and the ability of farnesol, a sesquiterpene, to mitigate reactive gliosis in the brain of Swiss albino mice. Farnesol supplementation (100mg/kgb.wt.) showed a marked improvement in gait performance, neuromuscular function and fine motor coordination and attenuated ACR-induced diminution in glutathione (GSH) with parallel reduction in lipid peroxidation (LPO), protein carbonyls, hydroxide, hydroperoxide and nitrite levels. Farnesol treatment significantly ameliorated ACR-mediated histological aberrations and reactive gliosis by downregulating Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and Ionizsed calcium-binding adapter molecule-1 ​(Iba-1) in the cortex, hippocampus and striatum. Further, ACR stimulated increase in levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and inducible form of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) were considerably decreased by farnesol. In conclusion, our findings indicate that farnesol exerts neuroprotective efficacy during ACR-induced neuropathology by suppressing reactive gliosis and associated inflammatory events.

Direct determination of acrylamide in food by gas chromatography with nitrogen chemiluminescence detection

A method of gas chromatography with nitrogen chemiluminescence detection and using standard addition is described for the determination of acrylamide in heat-processed foods. Using a modified QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe) sample preparation method removes the acrylamide precursors completely, and the risk of overestimating acrylamide concentration due to additional analyte formation in the hot gas chromatograph inlet is also avoided. Sample preparation is rapid and inexpensive. A Deans switch device is utilized to heart-cut acrylamide and to prevent interferences from the solvent and matrix from reaching the detector. The pre-column is backflushed at high temperature to maintain a clean baseline and shorten the cycle time compared to baking out the column. Quantitation using standard addition is employed for compensation of potential variability in the acrylamide extraction efficiency in acetonitrile. The limit of detection and the limit of the quantification obtained for this method are 27 and 81 μg/kg, respectively, in food samples (equivalent to 3.5 and 10.6 μg/L in acetonitrile, respectively), and the linear range is 76-9697 μg/kg in food samples (equivalent to 10-1280 μg/L in acetonitrile) with an R(2) value of 0.9999.

The impact of vitamin E against acrylamide induced toxicity on skeletal muscles of adult male albino rat tongue: Light and electron microscopic study

Acrylamide, one of the major environmental public health problems, results from its increased accumulation in the process of cooking food materials. This study aimed to demonstrate the light and electron microscopic structural effects of acrylamide on the skeletal muscle fibers of adult male albino rat tongue and to investigate the possible protective effect of vitamin E co-administration. Thirty adult male albino Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 3 groups, each group included 10 rats. Group I (control), group II which was subdivided into two equal subgroups: subgroup IIa: included 5 rats that received acrylamide orally once daily for 20 days. Subgroup IIb: included 5 rats that received acrylamide orally once daily for 40 days. Group III was also subdivided into two equal subgroups: subgroup IIIa: included 5 rats that received acrylamide and vitamin E orally once daily for 20 days. Subgroup IIIb: included 5 rats that received acrylamide and vitamin E orally once daily for 40 days. At the end of the experiment the tongue was dissected out for histological and electron microscopic studies, another muscle sample was homogenized and processed for biochemical estimation of malondialdehyde (MDA) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC). Light microscopic study of tongue skeletal muscles in acrylamide exposed animals revealed abnormal wavy course and splitting of the muscle fibers with fatty infiltration in between. Moreover, pyknosis and remnants of nuclei were detected. EM revealed marked aggregation of mitochondria of different size and shape with giant cells formation, and partial loss of myofilaments. There were statistically significant increase in MDA and decrease in TAC indicating oxidative stress in acrylamide administrated groups (group II) than the control group which increased by prolonged duration (subgroup IIb versus subgroup IIa, p < 0.0001). This oxidative stress could explain the histological changes in tongue muscles of acrylamide exposed rats. Co-administration of vitamin E with acrylamide ameliorated most of the above mentioned histological changes in the animals used and signs of improvement that became better with prolonged administration of it (subgroup IIIb versus subgroup IIIa, p < 0.0001) were detected. It could be concluded that, chronic exposure to acrylamide might lead to skeletal muscle damage in rat tongue which becomes worth with prolonged duration of exposure. Acrylamide induced oxidative stress is the implicated mechanism of such histological changes. This toxic effect of acrylamide could be minimized when vitamin E is given concomitantly with it by its antioxidant effect.

Development of a sensitive method for the determination of acrylamide in coffee using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a hybrid quadrupole Orbitrap mass spectrometer

The emerging trend towards high-resolution mass spectrometry (MS) alternatives was evaluated by the application of Orbitrap MS for the determination of acrylamide in coffee samples. The high resolving power of the Orbitrap MS provided the high selectivity and sensitivity that enabled quantitative analysis of acrylamide in complex matrices, such as coffee. Several sample preparation methods and scanning modes of the MS (full MS, t-SIM, t-MS2) were assessed in order to optimise parameters of the analytical method. The final procedure involved the extraction of acrylamide with acetonitrile, solid-phase extraction with dispersive primary secondary amine (PSA) and amino columns, and the detection by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a hybrid quadrupole-Orbitrap MS (HPLC-Q-Orbitrap) operated in targeted MS2 scanning mode. The repeatability of the method at the lowest calibration level (10 μg kg(-1)), expressed as relative standard deviation, was 7.8% and the average recovery of acrylamide was 111%. The proposed method was applied to the determination of acrylamide in 22 samples of roasted coffee obtained from the Latvian retail market. Acrylamide concentration in coffee samples was in the range of 166-503 μg kg(-1).

An eco-friendly, quick and cost-effective method for the quantification of acrylamide in cereal-based baby foods

BACKGROUND

The presence of acrylamide in cereal-based baby foods is a matter of great concern owing to its possible health effects. Derivatization followed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) is one of the most common methods to quantify acrylamide. However, it requires the use of toxic chemicals and is time-consuming. The aim of this study was to develop an eco-friendly, rapid and inexpensive method for the determination of acrylamide in cereal-based baby foods.

RESULTS

The method involves defatting with n-hexane, extraction into water, precipitation of proteins, bromination, extraction into ethyl acetate and injection into a GC/MS system. The effects of defatting, precipitation, treatment with triethylamine, addition of internal standard and column selection were reviewed. A flow chart for acrylamide analysis was prepared. To evaluate the applicability of the method, 62 different cereal-based baby foods were analyzed. The levels of acrylamide ranged from not detected (below the limit of detection) to 660 µg kg(-1).

CONCLUSION

The method is more eco-friendly and less expensive because it consumes very little solvent relative to other methods using bromine solutions and ethyl acetate. In addition, sample pre-treatment requires no solid phase extraction or concentration steps. The method is recommended for the determination of trace acrylamide in complex cereal-based baby food products.

Preparation and application of immobilised ionic liquid in solid-phase extraction for determination of trace acrylamide in food samples coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography

BACKGROUND

Acrylamide has attracted worldwide concerns because of its demonstrated neurotoxicity, genetoxicity and reproductive-development toxicity. It is necessary to control acrylamide production during food processing and protect human health.

RESULTS

In this study, a functionalised material was synthesised by immobilising an ionic liquid onto an activated silica gel surface. The adsorption ability of the material towards acrylamide was evaluated, and the results showed that it had high adsorption capacity. Scatchard analysis indicated that the binding sites in the prepared material had two distinct groups (high and low affinity binding sites). The saturated adsorption capacity (Q(max,1)) was 7.9 mg g(-1) due to the high affinity binding sites, and another saturated adsorption capacity (Q(max,2)) was 2.3 mg g(-1) due to the low affinity binding sites. This prepared material also offered fast kinetics for adsorption of the acrylamide. Using this material as sorbent, a method of solid-phase extraction coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography (SPE-HPLC) for analysis of acrylamide in foods was developed. Under optimal conditions, the limit of detection (S/N = 3) of this method for acrylamide was 2.1 µg kg(-1), and the RSD for five replicate extractions of 50 μL(-1) acrylamide was 4.5%. The blank potato and bread crumb samples spiked with acrylamide at different levels of 10.0 and 15.0 µg kg(-1) were extracted and determined respectively by this developed method, and recoveries ranging from 83.0% to 89.1% were obtained. Finally, this method was applied to quantitative detection of acrylamide in bread crust and cracker samples.

CONCLUSION

With high sensitivity and pre-treatment simplicity, this SPE-HPLC method could provide a new tool for the rapid determination of acrylamide in the food samples.

Risk assessment, formation, and mitigation of dietary acrylamide: current status and future prospects

Acrylamide (AA) was firstly detected in food in 2002, and since then, studies on AA analysis, occurrence, formation, toxicity, risk assessment and mitigation have been extensively carried out, which have greatly advanced understanding of this particular biohazard at both academic and industrial levels. There is considerable variation in the levels of AA in different foods and different brands of the same food; therefore, so far, a general upper limit for AA in food is not available. In addition, the link of dietary AA to human cancer is still under debate, although AA has been known as a potential cause of various toxic effects including carcinogenic effects in experimental animals. Furthermore, the oxidized metabolite of AA, glycidamide (GA), is more toxic than AA. Both AA and GA can form adducts with protein, DNA, and hemoglobin, and some of those adducts can serve as biomarkers for AA exposure; their potential roles in the linking of AA to human cancer, reproductive defects or other diseases, however, are unclear. This review addresses the state-of-the-art understanding of AA, focusing on risk assessment, mechanism of formation and strategies of mitigation in foods. The potential application of omics to AA risk assessment is also discussed.

Neurotoxicity of acrylamide in exposed workers

Acrylamide (ACR) is a water-soluble chemical used in different industrial and laboratory processes. ACR monomer is neurotoxic in humans and laboratory animals. Subchronic exposure to this chemical causes neuropathies, hands and feet numbness, gait abnormalities, muscle weakness, ataxia, skin and in some cases, cerebellar alterations. ACR neurotoxicity involves mostly the peripheral but also the central nervous system, because of damage to the nerve terminal through membrane fusion mechanisms and tubulovescicular alterations. Nevertheless, the exact action mechanism is not completely elucidated. In this paper we have reviewed the current literature on its neurotoxicity connected to work-related ACR exposure. We have analyzed not only the different pathogenetic hypotheses focusing on possible neuropathological targets, but also the critical behavior of ACR poisoning. In addition we have evaluated the ACR-exposed workers case studies. Despite all the amount of work which have being carried out on this topic more studies are necessary to fully understand the pathogenetic mechanisms, in order to propose suitable therapies.

Determination of acrylamide in dry feedstuff for dogs and cats

Acrylamide is considered to be an endogenous contaminant of food and feedstuff. Attention is paid to the acrylamide content in human nutrition products; however, there is lack of data about its concentrations in feedstuff. The aim of this study was to use a newly developed adsorptive stripping voltammetry procedure for determination of acrylamide concentrations in five and three different kinds of dog and cat dry feedstuff, respectively. The applied analytical procedure consists of a solvent extraction in ultrasound bath, followed by voltammetric measurement at the hanging mercury drop electrode in ammonia buffer. The accuracy of the method was verified by use of standard reference materials. The range of acrylamide concentration found in samples of dry dog and cat feedstuff ranged from 106 to 358 μg/kg, and from 66 to 269 μg/kg, respectively. The precision of analyses expressed in form of the relative standard deviations ranged between 0.6–1.7%. The voltammetric procedure appears to be a reliable, sensitive, rapid and low-cost analytical technique for the determination of acrylamide in food and feedstuff. The concentrations of acrylamide found in feedstuff were relatively moderate but it is undoubtedly necessary to monitor its concentrations in future.

Determination of acrylamide levels of "Izmir gevregi" and effects of cooking parameters on acrylamide formation

Acrylamide level of "Izmir gevregi" samples were detected by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Thirty samples of "Izmir gevregi" supplied from bakeries were analyzed to determine acrylamide levels for the first time. The average acrylamide level of "Izmir gevregi" samples was found to be 68.63 μg/kg. In this study, "Izmir gevregi" samples were cooked in laboratory conditions, first at 3 different time intervals at 280, 285, and 290 °C, after immersing in grape molasses. Shapped "Izmir gevregi" dough samples were also immersed in grape molases, mulbery molasses, and burned sugar solutions at different time intervals and cooked. We detected that acrylamide formation was increased by the incease of cooking temperature, time, and by using the same molasses several times. For the reduction of acrylamide level, KCl was added to dough formulations at different levels. Adding of KCl to dough at 25% and 50% of NaCl content decreased acrylamide values from 101.27 μg/kg to 69.88 and 51.91 μg/kg. By reducing sugar, protein, HMF, pH, and moisture content, L*, a*, and b* parameters were also determined in "Izmir gevregi" samples.

Rapid mixed mode solid phase extraction method for the determination of acrylamide in roasted coffee by HPLC-MS/MS

In this work, a rapid and reliable purification method based on a single mixed solid phase extraction (SPE) column, for the determination of acrylamide in roasted coffee by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, was developed. Deuterium labelled d(3)-acrylamide was used as internal standard. Acrylamide was extracted by 10 mL of water and the extract purified by a single SPE column consisting of 0.5 g of an in-house prepared mixture of C18, strong cation (SCX) and anion exchange (SAX) sorbents in the ratio 2/1.5/1.5 (w/w/w). The amount of the three sorbents was optimised in order to eliminate the main interfering compounds present in coffee extracts, such as melanoidins, trigonelline, chlorogenic acids and caffeine. The SPE procedure was very simple and consisted of pushing 1 mL of an aqueous coffee extract through the SPE column followed by 1 mL of water which was collected for the analysis. The method was tested on six samples of roasted coffee of different composition and roasting level. The repeatability of the method, expressed as relative standard deviation (n=6), was lower than 5%. The recovery of acrylamide at three spiked levels ranged from 92% to 95%. The limits of detection (LOD) and quantitation (LOQ) were 5 and 16 μg kg(-1), respectively.

The effect of domestic preparation of some potato products on acrylamide content

The influence that food heating has on the concentration of acrylamide in home-cooked potato dishes prepared by high-temperature, such as pan-frying, deep-frying, roasting and microwave heating was analyzed. The experiment was performed with commercially available deep-frozen par-fried French fries and deep-frozen par-fried potato products other than French fries (cubes, wedges, noisettes, pancakes). Acrylamide was found in all deep-frozen par-fried French fries and other deep-frozen par-fried potato products before domestic preparation. The mean level of acrylamide content in all frozen potato products before preparation was found to be 322 μg/kg. Potato products were then prepared at 180 °C for 3 min and at 220 °C for 10 min. After domestic preparation (roasting, pan-frying, deep-frying and microwave heating) it was found that the level of acrylamide in all products increased. Acrylamide content in the analyzed samples significantly increased as the temperature and time of processing increased. The statistical analysis showed significant differences (P < 0.05) for acrylamide content as a function of food preparation. The level of acrylamide increased with the increased heating temperature and heating time. Additionally, the preparation method of roasting was significantly lower in acrylamide content (P < 0.05) than the preparation method of microwaving although both preparation methods used the same conditions (time and temperature). These results suggest that microwaving might be more favourable to the formation of acrylamide than conventional heating methods, such as roasting.

New trends in quantification of acrylamide in food products

Methods applied in acrylamide quantification in foods have been reviewed in this paper. Novel analytical techniques like capillary electrophoresis (CE), immunoenzymatic test (ELISA) and electrochemical biosensors, which can replace traditional methods like high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography (GC) were presented. Short time of analysis and high resolution power of electrophoretic techniques caused that they became routinely used in food analysis apart from high performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatography. Application of modern chromatography methods like ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) in acrylamide quantification considerably shortened the time of analysis and decreased the consumption of indispensable reagents. The most promising approaches to acrylamide quantification in foods are electrochemical biosensors and immunoenzymatic tests. In contrast to chromatography and electrophoretic methods they require neither expensive equipment nor time consuming sample preparation and allow for fast screening of numerous samples without the usage of sophisticated apparatuses. Because of many advantages such as miniaturization, rapid and simple analysis, and high sensitivity and selectivity, biosensors are thought to replace conventional methods of acrylamide quantification in food.