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Zhang J, Liu L, Ning X, Lin M, Lai X. Isomer-specific analysis of nonylphenol and their transformation products in environment: A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 901:165982. [PMID: 37536583 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 07/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Nonylphenols (NPs) are crucial fine chemicals widely employed in producing industrial and consumer surfactants that ultimately enter the environment through various pathways, leading to environmental pollution. NPs are suspected endocrine-disrupting chemicals that may accumulate in the body over time, resulting in unusual reproductive function. Due to limitations in analytical methods, NPs have typically been quantified as a whole in some studies. However, NPs are a mixture of multibranched structures, and different NP isomers exhibit distinct environmental behaviors and toxic effects. Therefore, it is critical to analyze environmental and human biological samples at the isomer-specific level to elucidate the contamination characteristics, human exposure load, and toxic effects of NPs. Accurately analyzing NP samples with various isomers, metabolites, and transformation products presents a significant challenge. This review summarizes recent advances in analytical research on NPs in technical products, environmental, and human biological samples, particularly emphasizing the synthesis and separation of standards and the transformation of NP homolog isomers in samples. Finally, the review highlights the research gaps and future research directions in this domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianyi Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Pollutant Exposure and Health, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Lang Liu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Pollutant Exposure and Health, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Xunan Ning
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Pollutant Exposure and Health, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Meiqing Lin
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Pollutant Exposure and Health, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Xiaojun Lai
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Pollutant Exposure and Health, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Guangzhou 510006, China
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Al Rashed N, Gerlach C, Guenther K. Determination of Nonylphenol in Selected Foods and Identification of Single Isomers in a Coffee Sample by Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry. ANAL LETT 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/00032719.2023.2180018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
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3
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Wang Y, Shan J, Zhao Y, Li F, Corvini PFX, Ji R. Degradation and transformation of nitrated nonylphenol isomers in activated sludge under nitrifying and heterotrophic conditions. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2020; 393:122438. [PMID: 32151935 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2019] [Revised: 02/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/29/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Nitrated nonylphenols (2-nitro-nonylphenols, NNPs) are metabolites of the endocrine-disrupter nonylphenols (NPs). While they have been detected in the environment, their fate in activated sludge has yet to be determined. In this study, we used synthesized NNP isomers and a 14C-tracer technique to study the degradation and transformation of four NNP isomers (NNP111, NNP112, NNP38, and NNP65) in nitrifying activated sludge (NAS) and heterotrophic bacteria-enhanced activated sludge (HAS). Our results showed that the degradation of NNPs in both NAS and HAS was isomer-specific. The half-lives of the NNPs decreased in the order: NNP111 > NNP112 > NNP38 > NNP65. After 36 days of incubation, 9.48 % and 4.01 % of the 14C-NNP111 was mineralized in NAS and HAS, respectively. In addition to mineralization, five metabolites of NNPs containing hydroxyl, carbonyl, and carboxyl substituents on the alkyl chains were formed in NAS but not in HAS. The transformation of NNPs differed in NAS and HAS, mainly due to the differences in their microbial communities and the activities thereof in NAS and HAS. This is the first study of the isomer-specific fate of NNP isomers in activated sludge. Future studies should assess the toxicity, stability and potential risks of NNP metabolites in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongfeng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, 210023, Nanjing, China; Quanzhou Institute for Environment Protection Industry, Nanjing University, Beifeng Road, 362000, Quanzhou, China
| | - Jun Shan
- State Key Laboratory of Soil and Sustainable Agriculture, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 210008, Nanjing, China; Changshu National Agro-Ecosystem Observation and Research Station, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 210008, Nanjing, China.
| | - Yingying Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, 210023, Nanjing, China
| | - Fangjie Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, 210023, Nanjing, China
| | - Philippe F-X Corvini
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, 210023, Nanjing, China; Institute for Ecopreneurship, School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, 4132, Muttenz, Switzerland
| | - Rong Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, 210023, Nanjing, China; Quanzhou Institute for Environment Protection Industry, Nanjing University, Beifeng Road, 362000, Quanzhou, China.
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Acir IH, Guenther K. Endocrine-disrupting metabolites of alkylphenol ethoxylates - A critical review of analytical methods, environmental occurrences, toxicity, and regulation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 635:1530-1546. [PMID: 29874777 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Revised: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 04/05/2018] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Despite the fact that metabolites of alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEO) are classified as hazardous substances, they continue to be released into the environment from a variety of sources and are not usually monitored. Their wide use has led to an increase in the possible exposure pathways for humans, which is cause for alarm. Moreover, there is a lack of knowledge about the behaviour of these metabolites with respect to the environment and toxicity, and their biological effects on human health. The aim of this work is to give an overview of the APEO metabolites and their analysis, occurrences and toxicity in various environmental and human samples. APEO metabolites have adverse effects on humans, wildlife, and the environment through their release into the environment. Currently, there are some reviews available on the behaviour of alkylphenols in soil, sediments, groundwater, surface water and food. However, none of these articles consider their toxicity in humans and especially their effect on the nervous and immune system. This work summarises the environmental occurrences of metabolites of APEOs in matrices, e.g. water, food and biological matrices, their effect on the immune and nervous systems, and isomer-specific issues. With that emphasis we are able to cover most common occurrences of human exposure, whether direct or indirect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ismail-H Acir
- University of Bonn, Institute of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Food Chemistry, Endenicher Allee 11-13, D-53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Klaus Guenther
- University of Bonn, Institute of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Food Chemistry, Endenicher Allee 11-13, D-53115 Bonn, Germany.
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Lu Z, Gan J. Analysis, toxicity, occurrence and biodegradation of nonylphenol isomers: a review. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2014; 73:334-345. [PMID: 25222298 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2014] [Revised: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Over the last two decades, nonylphenols (NPs) have become to be known as a priority hazardous substance due primarily to its estrogenicity and ubiquitous occurrence in the environment. Nonylphenols are commonly treated as a single compound in the evaluation of their environmental occurrence, fate and transport, treatment or toxicity. However, technical nonylphenols (tNPs) are in fact a mixture of more than 100 isomers and congeners. Recent studies showed that some of these isomers behaved significantly differently in occurrence, estrogenicity and biodegradability. The most estrogenic isomer was about 2 to 4 times more active than tNP. Moreover, the half lives of the most recalcitrant isomers were about 3 to 4 times as long as those of readily-biodegradable isomers. Negligence of NP's isomer specificity may result in inaccurate assessment of its ecological and health effects. In this review, we summarized the recent publications on the analysis, occurrence, toxicity and biodegradation of NP at the isomer level and highlighted future research needs to improve our understanding of isomer-specificity of NP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijiang Lu
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 9252, United States.
| | - Jay Gan
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 9252, United States.
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Zhang C, Eganhouse RP, Pontolillo J, Cozzarelli IM, Wang Y. Determination of nonylphenol isomers in landfill leachate and municipal wastewater using steam distillation extraction coupled with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1230:110-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.12.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2011] [Revised: 12/23/2011] [Accepted: 12/29/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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7
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Modulation in comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography: 20 years of innovation. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 401:2335-49. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-5100-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2011] [Revised: 05/10/2011] [Accepted: 05/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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8
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Vallejo A, Olivares M, Fernández L, Etxebarria N, Arrasate S, Anakabe E, Usobiaga A, Zuloaga O. Optimization of comprehensive two dimensional gas chromatography-flame ionization detection–quadrupole mass spectrometry for the separation of octyl- and nonylphenol isomers. J Chromatogr A 2011; 1218:3064-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2010] [Revised: 02/17/2011] [Accepted: 03/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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9
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Ieda T, Ochiai N, Miyawaki T, Ohura T, Horii Y. Environmental analysis of chlorinated and brominated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2011; 1218:3224-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2010] [Revised: 12/30/2010] [Accepted: 01/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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10
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Machado ME, Caramão EB, Zini CA. Investigation of sulphur compounds in coal tar using monodimensional and comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2011; 1218:3200-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2010.11.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2010] [Revised: 11/27/2010] [Accepted: 11/29/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Gallart-Ayala H, Moyano E, Galceran MT. Recent advances in mass spectrometry analysis of phenolic endocrine disruptors and related compounds. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2010; 29:776-805. [PMID: 19367629 DOI: 10.1002/mas.20234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
This article reviews recent literature on current methodologies based on chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry to analyze phenolic compounds with endocrine-disrupting capabilities. For this review we chose alkylphenol ethoxylates, bisphenol A, bisphenol F, and their degradation products and halogenated derivatives, which are considered important environmental contaminants. Additionally, some related compounds such as bisphenol diglycidylethers were included. Growing attention has been paid to the mass spectrometric characterization of these compounds and the instrumentation and strategies used for their quantification and confirmation. The current use of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) methodologies with different mass spectrometers and ionization and monitoring modes is discussed. Practical aspects with regards to the use of these analytical techniques, such as derivatizing reagents in GC-MS, ion suppression in LC-MS, and the most problematic aspects of quantification, are included in the discussion.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Gallart-Ayala
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Barcelona, Martí i Franquès 1-11, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
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12
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Boehme RM, Andries T, Dötz KH, Thiele B, Guenther K. Synthesis of defined endocrine-disrupting nonylphenol isomers for biological and environmental studies. CHEMOSPHERE 2010; 80:813-821. [PMID: 20452641 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.03.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2009] [Revised: 03/22/2010] [Accepted: 03/23/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Nonylphenols are very important environmentally relevant substances in the focus of the world-wide endocrine disrupter research for over 25 years. Thus, they are among the 10 priority hazardous substances of the new European Union Water Framework Directive. They consist of a very complex mixture of isomers representing therefore a multi-component problem like dioxins or PCBs. As estrogenic effect and degradation behavior in the environment of individual 4-nonylphenols are heavily dependent on the structure and bulkiness of the side chain, it is absolutely necessary to consider the nonylphenol problem from an isomer-specific viewpoint. Therefore a range of 28 differently branched nonylphenol isomers were synthesized for biological and environmental studies. Nonylphenols with a quaternary alpha-carbon, like 4-(1,1,3,4-tetramethylpentyl)phenol (4-NP(95)) and 4-(1-ethyl-1,3,3-trimethylbutyl)phenol (4-NP(170)), were obtained by Friedel-Crafts alkylation of anisole with tertiary nonyl bromides and demethylation with BI(3). Nonylphenols with a tertiary alpha-carbon, such as 4-(1,2-dimethylheptyl)phenol (4-NP(10)) and 4-(1,2,4-trimethylhexyl)phenol (4-NP(41)), were accessible via coupling of p-methoxyphenylmagnesium bromide with ketones. Nonylphenols bearing a quaternary beta-carbon, like 4-(2,2-dimethylheptyl)phenol (4-NP(15)) and 4-(1,2,2-trimethylhexyl)phenol (4-NP(39)), were synthesized starting from 4'-methoxyisobutyrophenone. The compounds were characterized by GC-MS and NMR-spectroscopy. The individual isomers were designated according to the Juelich Nomenclature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roswitha M Boehme
- Institute of Chemistry and Dynamics of the Geosphere, ICG-3: Phytosphere, Research Centre Juelich, D-52425 Juelich, Germany
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13
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Eganhouse RP, Pontolillo J, Gaines RB, Frysinger GS, Gabriel FLP, Kohler HPE, Giger W, Barber LB. Isomer-specific determination of 4-nonylphenols using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2009; 43:9306-9313. [PMID: 19924899 DOI: 10.1021/es902622r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Technical nonylphenol (tNP), used for industrial production of nonylphenol polyethoxylate surfactants, is a complex mixture of C(3-10)-phenols. The major components, 4-nonylphenols, are weak endocrine disruptors whose estrogenicities vary according to the structure of the branched nonyl group. Thus, accurate risk assessment requires isomer-specific determination of 4-NPs. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC x GC/ToFMS) was used to characterize tNP samples obtained from seven commercial suppliers. Under optimal chromatographic conditions, 153-204 alkylphenol peaks, 59-66 of which were identified as 4-NPs, were detected. The 4-NPs comprised approximately 86-94% of tNP, with 2-NPs and decylphenols making up approximately 2-9% and approximately 2-5%, respectively. The tNP products were analyzed for eight synthetic 4-NP isomers, and results were compared with published data based on GC/MS analysis. Significant differences were found among the products and between two samples from a single supplier. The enhanced resolution of GC x GC coupled with fast mass spectral data acquisition by ToFMS facilitated identification of all major 4-NP isomers and a number of previously unrecognized components. Analysis of tNP altered by the bacterium, Sphingobium xenophagum Bayram, revealed several persistent 4-NPs whose structures and estrogenicities are presently unknown. The potential of this technology for isomer-specific determination of 4-NP isomers in environmental matrices is demonstrated using samples of wastewater-contaminated groundwater and municipal wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert P Eganhouse
- U.S. Geological Survey, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, Reston, Virginia 20192, USA.
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Quantification of the influence of extracellular laccase and intracellular reactions on the isomer-specific biotransformation of the xenoestrogen technical nonylphenol by the aquatic hyphomycete Clavariopsis aquatica. Appl Environ Microbiol 2009; 75:4398-409. [PMID: 19429559 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00139-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The aquatic hyphomycete Clavariopsis aquatica was used to quantify the effects of extracellular laccase and intracellular reactions on the isomer-specific biotransformation of technical nonylphenol (t-NP). In laccase-producing cultures, maximal removal rates of t-NP and the isomer 4-(1-ethyl-1,4-dimethylpentyl)phenol (NP112) were about 1.6- and 2.4-fold higher, respectively, than in laccase-lacking cultures. The selective suppression of either laccase or intracellular reactions resulted in essentially comparable maximal removal rates for both compounds. Evidence for an unspecific oxidation of t-NP isomers was consistently obtained from laccase-expressing fungal cultures when intracellular biotransformation was suppressed and from reaction mixtures containing isolated laccase. This observation contrasts with the selective degradation of t-NP isomers by bacteria and should prevent the enrichment of highly estrogenic isomers in remaining t-NP. In contrast with laccase reactions, intracellular fungal biotransformation caused a significant shift in the isomeric composition of remaining t-NP. As a result, certain t-NP constituents related to more estrogenic isomers were less efficiently degraded than others. In contrast to bacterial degradation via ipso-hydroxylation, the substitution pattern of the quaternary alpha-carbon of t-NP isomers does not seem to be very important for intracellular transformation in C. aquatica. As-yet-unknown intracellular enzymes are obviously induced by nonylphenols. Mass spectral data of the metabolites resulting from the intracellular oxidation of t-NP, NP112, and 4-(1-ethyl-1,3-dimethylpentyl)phenol indicate nonyl chain hydroxylation, further oxidation into keto or aldehyde compounds, and the subsequent formation of carboxylic acid derivatives. Further metabolites suggest nonyl chain desaturation and methylation of carboxylic acids. The phenolic moieties of the nonylphenols remained unchanged.
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Zenkevich IG, Makarov AA, Schrader S, Moeder M. A new version of an additive scheme for the prediction of gas chromatographic retention indices of the 211 structural isomers of 4-nonylphenol. J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:4097-106. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2009.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2008] [Revised: 03/02/2009] [Accepted: 03/06/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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16
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Recent developments in the application of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2008; 1186:67-108. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2008.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 298] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2007] [Revised: 01/01/2008] [Accepted: 01/02/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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17
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Mondello L, Tranchida PQ, Dugo P, Dugo G. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry: a review. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2008; 27:101-124. [PMID: 18240151 DOI: 10.1002/mas.20158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Although comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC x GC) has been on the scene for more than 15 years, it is still generally considered a relatively novel technique and is yet far from being fully established. The revolutionary aspect of GC x GC, with respect to classical multidimensional chromatography, is that the entire sample is subjected to two distinct analytical separations. The resulting enhanced separating capacity makes this approach a prime choice when GC analysts are challenged with highly complex mixtures. The combination of a third mass spectrometric dimension to a GC x GC system generates the most powerful analytical tool today for volatile and semi-volatile analytes. The present review is focused on the rather brief, but not scant, history of comprehensive two-dimensional GC-MS: the first experiments were carried out at the end of the 1990s and, since then, the methodology has been increasingly studied and applied. Almost all GC x GC-MS applications have been carried out by using either a time-of-flight or quadrupole mass analyzer; significant experiments relative to a variety of research fields, as well as advantages and disadvantages of the MS systems employed, are discussed. The principles, practical and theoretical aspects, and the most significant developments of GC x GC are also described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Mondello
- Dipartimento Farmaco-chimico, Facoltà di Farmacia, Università di Messina, viale Annunziata, 98168 Messina, Italy.
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18
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Das KC, Xia K. Transformation of 4-nonylphenol isomers during biosolids composting. CHEMOSPHERE 2008; 70:761-8. [PMID: 17825875 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.07.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2007] [Revised: 07/12/2007] [Accepted: 07/13/2007] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
4-Nonylphenol, a degradation intermediate of commercial surfactant and known endocrine disruptor, has been frequently detected at levels up to several thousand microgl(-1) in surface waters and up to several hundred mgkg(-1) (dry weight) in soil and sediment samples. Large quantities of 4-NP can be quickly sorbed by the organic rich solid phase during wastewater treatment and are concentrated in biosolids, a possible major source for 4-NP in the environment. Microbial transformation in culture studies followed different mechanisms for different 4-NP isomers, which have different estrogenic activity. Composting is a process of solid matrix transformation where biological activity is enhanced by process control. This approach has been used successfully in remediation of contaminated soils and sludges. In this study, the transformation kinetics of 4-NP and its isomers were characterized during biosolids composting. Five distinctive 4-NP isomer groups with structures relative to alpha- and beta-carbons of the alkyl chain were identified in biosolids. Composting biosolids mixed with wood shaving at a dry weight percentage ratio of 43:57 (C:N ratio of 65:1) removed 80% of the total 4-NP within two weeks. At this biosolids/wood shaving ratio (B:WS), the transformation of total 4-NP and its isomers followed second-order kinetic. Higher B:WS ratios yielded significantly slower 4-NP transformation which followed first-order kinetic. Isomers with alpha-methyl-alpha-propyl structure transformed significantly slower than those with less branched tertiary alpha-carbon and those with secondary alpha-carbon, suggesting isomer-specific degradation of 4-NP during biosolids composting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keshav C Das
- Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Driftmier Engineering Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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19
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Meinert C, Moeder M, Brack W. Fractionation of technical p-nonylphenol with preparative capillary gas chromatography. CHEMOSPHERE 2007; 70:215-23. [PMID: 17681585 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.06.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2007] [Revised: 06/13/2007] [Accepted: 06/14/2007] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
A fractionation procedure for technical p-nonylphenol using preparative capillary gas chromatography (pcGC) was developed and evaluated for its potential applicability in effect-directed analysis (EDA). The instrument is composed of (1) a preparative unit equipped with a cold injection system (CIS), two preparative fraction collectors (PFCs) with six fraction traps each, and a flame ionization detector (FID) and (2) an analytical unit sharing the same GC oven and equipped with another CIS and mass spectrometric detection (MSD) for isomer identification. The pcGC methodology used in this study is characterized by a high reproducibility of retention times and peak areas. This provides the fractionation of nonylphenol isomers into 11 fractions containing 77-552microg of isomers collected after 600 single injections. This yield is sufficient to allow subsequent biotesting in the E-screen assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia Meinert
- UFZ, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Department of Effect-Directed Analysis, Permoserstrasse 15, D-04318 Leipzig, Germany.
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Boitsov S, Mjøs SA, Meier S. Identification of estrogen-like alkylphenols in produced water from offshore oil installations. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2007; 64:651-65. [PMID: 17714776 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2007.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2007] [Revised: 06/28/2007] [Accepted: 07/02/2007] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Produced water released into the sea from oil installations contains a vast number of organic compounds. This work focuses on the analysis and identification of phenols in produced water, in particular long-chain para-substituted alkylphenols, which act as endocrine disruptors for marine biota. Some alkylphenol standards, unavailable commercially, have been synthesised and some compounds of interest identified. However, a complete identification is not possible since conventional GC techniques cannot achieve the desired degree of separation. An overview of the levels of the 52 known alkylphenols in produced water from nine oil installations in the North and Norwegian Seas has been made. The previously unidentified alkylphenols in produced water have been characterised by means of alkylphenol retention indices (APRI) and mass spectrometry, and their total amounts estimated for the same nine locations. Our results confirm the presence of naphthols and other as yet unidentified compounds in produced water, while thiophenols were not detected by the used technique.
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Cabana H, Jones JP, Agathos SN. Elimination of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals using White Rot Fungi and their Lignin Modifying Enzymes: A Review. Eng Life Sci 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/elsc.200700017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Hoggard JC, Synovec RE. Parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC) of target analytes in GC x GC-TOFMS data: automated selection of a model with an appropriate number of factors. Anal Chem 2007; 79:1611-9. [PMID: 17297963 DOI: 10.1021/ac061710b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
PARAFAC (parallel factor analysis) is a powerful chemometric method that has been demonstrated as a useful deconvolution technique in dealing with data obtained using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography combined with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC x GC-TOFMS). However, selection of a PARAFAC model having an appropriate number of factors can be challenging, especially at low S/N or for analytes in the presence of chromatographic and spectral overlapping compounds (interferences). Herein, we present a method for the automated selection of a PARAFAC model with an appropriate number of factors in GC x GC-TOFMS data, demonstrated for a target analyte of interest. The approach taken in the methodology is as follows. PARAFAC models are automatically generated having an incrementally higher number of factors until mass spectral matching of the corresponding loadings in the model against a target analyte mass spectrum indicates overfitting has occurred. Then, the model selected simply has one less factor than the overfit model. Results indicate this model selection approach is viable across the detection range of the instrument from overloaded analyte signal down to low S/N analyte signal (total ion current signal intensity at analyte peak maximum S/N < 1). While the methodology is generally applicable to comprehensive two-dimensional separations using multichannel spectral detection, we evaluated it with several target analytes using GC x GC-TOFMS. For brevity in this report, only results for bromobenzene as target analyte are presented. Alternatively, instead of using the model with one less factor than the overfit model, one can select the model with the highest mass spectral match for the target analyte from among all the models generated (excluding the overfit model). Both model selection approaches gave essentially identical results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamin C Hoggard
- Department of Chemistry, Box 351700, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, USA
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Zhang H, Zuehlke S, Guenther K, Spiteller M. Enantioselective separation and determination of single nonylphenol isomers. CHEMOSPHERE 2007; 66:594-602. [PMID: 17027900 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2006] [Revised: 07/31/2006] [Accepted: 08/03/2006] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
It has recently become clear that an isomer specific view of technical 4-nonylphenol (NP) is absolutely necessary for the evaluation of the biological behavior of NP, raising additional questions concerning enantiomer specific effects. For the first time, in this study enantioselective HPLC was applied to enantiomeric separation of chiral NP isomers. A semipreparative separation of two NP isomers could be achieved. A GC-MS method has been developed for the simultaneous detection of three chiral NP isomers in water samples. Investigation of influent and effluent samples from a wastewater treatment plant in Germany indicated that enantioselective degradation could occur in the environment. In one examined influent, an enantiomer ratio of 1.7 for two different isomers was determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haifeng Zhang
- Institute of Environmental Research, University of Dortmund, Otto-Hahn-Str. 6, D-44227 Dortmund, Germany
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Current literature in mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2006; 41:1654-1665. [PMID: 17136768 DOI: 10.1002/jms.959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
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Panić O, Górecki T. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC×GC) in environmental analysis and monitoring. Anal Bioanal Chem 2006; 386:1013-23. [PMID: 16862380 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-006-0568-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2006] [Revised: 05/16/2006] [Accepted: 05/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Compared to conventional one-dimensional gas chromatography (1D-GC), comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC x GC) offers increased peak capacity, improved resolution and enhanced mass sensitivity. In addition, it generates structured two-dimensional (2-D) chromatograms, which aids in the identification of compound classes. Sample preparation procedures can often be minimized, or even eliminated in some cases, due to the superior separating power offered by the technique. All of these advantages make GC x GC a very powerful tool in environmental analysis involving the determination of trace levels of toxic compounds in complex matrices. This review paper summarizes and examines the historical and recent GC x GC applications in environmental analysis and monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ognjen Panić
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave. W., Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada
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Corvini PFX, Schäffer A, Schlosser D. Microbial degradation of nonylphenol and other alkylphenols—our evolving view. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2006; 72:223-43. [PMID: 16826376 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-006-0476-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2006] [Revised: 04/11/2006] [Accepted: 04/19/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Because the endocrine disrupting effects of nonylphenol (NP) and octylphenol became evident, the degradation of long-chain alkylphenols (AP) by microorganisms was intensively studied. Most NP-degrading bacteria belong to the sphingomonads and closely related genera, while NP metabolism is not restricted to defined fungal taxa. Growth on NP and its mineralization was demonstrated for bacterial isolates, whereas ultimate degradation by fungi still remains unclear. While both bacterial and fungal degradation of short-chain AP, such as cresols, and the bacterial degradation of long-chain branched AP involves aromatic ring hydroxylation, alkyl chain oxidation and the formation of phenolic polymers seem to be preferential elimination pathways of long-chain branched AP in fungi, whereby both intracellular and extracellular oxidative enzymes may be involved. The degradation of NP by sphingomonads does not proceed via the common degradation mechanisms reported for short-chain AP, rather, via an unusual ipso-substitution mechanism. This fact underlies the peculiarity of long-chain AP such as NP isomers, which possess highly branched alkyl groups mostly containing a quaternary alpha-carbon. In addition to physicochemical parameters influencing degradation rates, this structural characteristic confers to branched isomers of NP a biodegradability different to that of the widely used linear isomer of NP. Potential biotechnological applications for the removal of AP from contaminated media and the difficulties of analysis and application inherent to the hydrophobic NP, in particular, are also discussed. The combination of bacteria and fungi, attacking NP at both the phenolic and alkylic moiety, represents a promising perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- P F X Corvini
- Department of Environmental Research, RWTH Aachen University, 52074, Aachen, Germany
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Adahchour M, Beens J, Vreuls R, Brinkman U. Recent developments in comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC×GC). Trends Analyt Chem 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2006.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 227] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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