Direct analysis of pharmaceuticals, their metabolites and transformation products in environmental waters using on-line TurboFlow™ chromatography–liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry

Review on antibiotic pollution dynamics: insights to occurrence, environmental behaviour, ecotoxicity, and management strategies

Antibiotic contamination poses a significant global concern due to its far-reaching impact on public health and the environment. This comprehensive review delves into the prevalence of various antibiotic classes in environmental pollution and their interactions with natural ecosystems. Fluoroquinolones, macrolides, tetracyclines, and sulphonamides have emerged as prevalent contaminants in environmental matrices worldwide. The concentrations of these antibiotics vary across diverse environments, influenced by production practices, consumer behaviours, and socio-economic factors. Low- and low-middle-income countries face unique challenges in managing antibiotic contamination, with dominant mechanisms like hydrolysis, sorption, and biodegradation leading to the formation of toxic byproducts. Ecotoxicity reports reveal the detrimental effects of these byproducts on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, further emphasizing the gravity of the issue. Notably, monitoring the antibiotic parent compound alone may be inadequate for framing effective control and management strategies for antibiotic pollution. This review underscores the imperative of a comprehensive, multi-sectoral approach to address environmental antibiotic contamination and combat antimicrobial resistance. It also advocates for the development and implementation of tailored national action plans that consider specific environmental conditions and factors. Thus, an approach is crucial for safeguarding both public health and the delicate balance of our natural ecosystems.

Applications of chromatographic methods in metabolomics: A review

Chromatography is a robust and reliable separation method that can use various stationary phases to separate complex mixtures commonly seen in metabolomics. This review examines the types of chromatography and stationary phases that have been used in targeted or untargeted metabolomics with methods such as mass spectrometry (MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. General considerations for sample pretreatment and separations in metabolomics are considered, along with the various supports and separation formats for chromatography that have been used in such work. The types of liquid chromatography (LC) that have been most extensively used in metabolomics will be examined, such as reversed-phase liquid chromatography and hydrophilic liquid interaction chromatography. In addition, other forms of LC that have been used in more limited applications for metabolomics (e.g., ion-exchange, size-exclusion, and affinity methods) will be discussed to illustrate how these techniques may be utilized for new and future research in this field. Multidimensional LC methods are also discussed, as well as the use of gas chromatography and supercritical fluid chromatography in metabolomics. In addition, the roles of chromatography in NMR- vs. MS-based metabolomics are considered. Applications are given within the field of metabolomics for each type of chromatography, along with potential advantages or limitations of these separation methods.

Hydroxylated transformation products of pharmaceutical active compounds: Generation from processes used in wastewater treatment plants and its environmental monitoring

Pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) are organic pollutants detected in wastewater and aquatic environments worldwide in concentrations ranging from ng L-1 to μg L-1. Wastewater effluents containing PhACs residues is discharged in municipal sewage and, subsequently collected in municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) where are not entirely removed. Thus, PhACs and its transformation products (TPs) are discharged into water bodies. In the current work, the transformation of PhACs under treatments used in municipal WWTPs such as biological, photolysis, chlorination, and ozonation processes was reviewed. Data set of the major transformation pathways were obtained of studies that performed the PhACs removal and TPs monitoring during batch-scale experiments using gas and liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (GC/LC-MS/MS). Several transformation pathways as dealkylation, hydroxylation, oxidation, acetylation, aromatic ring opening, chlorination, dehalogenation, photo-substitution, and ozone attack reactions were identified during the transformation of PhACs. Especially, hydroxylation reaction was identified as transformation pathway in all the processes. During the elucidation of hydroxylated TPs several isobaric compounds as monohydroxylated and dihydroxylated were identified. However, hydroxylated TPs monitoring in wastewater and aquatic environments is a topic scarcely studied due to that has no environmental significance, lack of available analytic standars of hydroxylated TPs and lack of analytic methods for their identification. Thus, screening strategy for environmental monitoring of hydroxylated TPs was proposed through target and suspect screening using GC/LC-MS/MS systems. In the next years, more studies on the hydroxylated TPs monitoring are necessary for its detection in WWTPs effluents as well as studies on their environmental effects in aquatic environments.

Multiclass target analysis of contaminants of emerging concern including transformation products, soil bioavailability assessment and retrospective screening as tools to evaluate risks associated with reclaimed water reuse

The occurrence of 200 multiclass contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) encompassing 168 medicinal products and transformation products (TPs), 5 artificial sweeteners, 12 industrial chemicals, and 15 other compounds was investigated in influent and effluent wastewater samples collected during 7 consecutive days from 5 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) located in Cyprus. The methodology included a generic solid-phase extraction protocol using mixed-bed cartridges followed by Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled with Quadrupole-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS) analysis. A total of 63 CECs were detected at least in one sample, with 52 and 55 out of the 200 compounds detected in influents and effluents, respectively. Ten (10) out of the 24 families of parent compounds and associated TPs were found in the wastewater samples (influent or effluent). 1-H-benzotriazole, carbamazepine, citalopram, lamotrigine, sucralose, tramadol, and venlafaxine (>80 % frequency of appearance in effluents) were assessed with respect to their bioavailability in soil as part of different scenarios of irrigation with reclaimed water following a qualitative approach. A high score of 12 (high probability) was predicted for 2 scenarios, a low score of 3 (rare occasions) for 2 scenarios, while the rest 28 scenarios had scores 5-8 (unlikely or limited possibility) and 9-11 (possibly). Retrospective screening was performed with the use of a target database of 2466 compounds and led to the detection of 158 additional compounds (medicinal products (65), medicinal products TPs (15), illicit drugs (7), illicit drugs TPs (3), industrial chemicals (11), plant protection products (25), plant protection products TPs (10), and various other compounds (22). This work aspires to showcase how the presence of CECs in wastewater could be investigated and assessed at WWTP level, including an expert-based methodology for assessing the soil bioavailability of CECs, with the aim to develop sustainable practices and enhance reclaimed water reuse.

Removal efficiency for emerging contaminants in a WWTP from Madrid (Spain) after secondary and tertiary treatment and environmental impact on the Manzanares River

The effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) can be an important contamination source for receiving waters. In this work, a comprehensive study on the impact of a WWTP from Madrid on the aquatic environment has been performed, including a wide number of pharmaceuticals and pesticides, among them those included in the European Watch List. 24-h composite samples of influent (IWW) and effluent wastewater after secondary (EWW2) and after secondary + tertiary treatment (EWW3) were monitored along two campaigns. Average weekly concentrations in IWW and EWW2 and EWW3 allowed estimating the removal efficiency of the WWTP for pharmaceutical active substances (PhACs). In addition, the impact of EWW3 on the water quality of the Manzanares River was assessed, in terms of PhAC and pesticide concentrations, through analysis of the river water collected upstream and downstream of the discharge point. After a preliminary risk assessment, a detailed evaluation of the impact on the aquatic environment, including a toxicological study and screening of pharmaceutical metabolites, was made for the seven most relevant PhACs: sulfamethoxazole, azithromycin and clarithromycin (antibiotics), metoprolol (antihypertensive), diclofenac (anti-inflammatory/analgesic), irbesartan (antihypertensive), and the antidepressant venlafaxine. Among selected PhACs, irbesartan, clarithromycin and venlafaxine presented moderate or high risk in the river water downstream of the discharge. Albeit no acute toxicity was detected, more detailed studies should be carried out for these substances, including additional toxicological studies, to set up potential sublethal and chronic effects on aquatic organisms.

Morbidity and mortality in Danio rerio and Pimephales promelas exposed to antilipidemic drug mixtures (fibrates and statins) during embryogenesis: Comprehensive assessment via ante and post mortem endpoints

Antilipidemic drugs are routinely detected in effluent and surface waters downstream of wastewater treatment plants. A mixture exposure study with nine environmentally relevant antilipidemic drugs was performed with zebrafish (Danio rerio, ZF) and fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas, FHM) embryos to investigate the effects on sensitive embryologic stages. Zebrafish embryos were exposed nominally to: (a) 0.005 μM, (b) 0.05 μM, or (c) 0.5 μM of each drug in the mixture. Fathead minnow embryos were exposed nominally to: (a) 0.0005 μM, (b) 0.005 μM, or (c) 0.05 μM of each drug in the mixture. Several of the individual drug concentrations were within ranges previously found in the environment. Multiple metrics demonstrate that (a) exposure of ZF and FHM embryos to antilipidemic drugs during embryonic development results in lethal and sublethal effects, (b) ZF were more sensitive than FHM based on median lethal concentration (LC₅₀ 0.02 μM and 0.05 μM, respectively), but FHM exhibited more severe abnormal sublethal morphologies than zebrafish embryos, and (c) the sublethal effects differed between the two species. This model identified novel specific endpoints for assessing sensitive, sublethal effects of pharmaceuticals in the environment. Abnormal myofiber birefringence pattern, hemorrhage, and heart rate are not included in standard evaluations but each of these metrics demonstrated a dose-dependent response in this study. Results demonstrate risk to fish development with potential repercussions at the population level, especially if environmental concentrations increase.

Selected Pharmaceuticals in Different Aquatic Compartments: Part I-Source, Fate and Occurrence

Potential risks associated with releases of human pharmaceuticals into the environment have become an increasingly important issue in environmental health. This concern has been driven by the widespread detection of pharmaceuticals in all aquatic compartments. Therefore, 22 pharmaceuticals, 6 metabolites and transformation products, belonging to 7 therapeutic groups, were selected to perform a systematic review on their source, fate and occurrence in different aquatic compartments, important issues to tackle the Water Framework Directive (WFD). The results obtained evidence that concentrations of pharmaceuticals are present, in decreasing order, in wastewater influents (WWIs), wastewater effluents (WWEs) and surface waters, with values up to 14 mg L⁻¹ for ibuprofen in WWIs. The therapeutic groups which presented higher detection frequencies and concentrations were anti-inflammatories, antiepileptics, antibiotics and lipid regulators. These results present a broad and specialized background, enabling a complete overview on the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic compartments.

Formation of new disinfection by-products of priority substances (Directive 2013/39/UE and Watch List) in drinking water treatment

The degradation of priority substances (Directive 2013/39/UE and Watch List) by chlorine dioxide (ClO₂) and the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in a drinking water treatment plant (DWTP) located near Barcelona (NE Spain) were investigated. For the first time, the reactivity with ClO₂ of several compounds frequently found at the entrance of the DWTP such as erythromycin, clarithromycin, chlorpyrifos, and imidacloprid was evaluated in both simulated and real conditions. To identify potential DBPs, experiments were performed at laboratory scale by simulating the operational disinfection conditions in the DWTP. Liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) working in full scan and target-MS/HRMS modes was used for the identification of the generated DBPs. Several new DBPs were found, three from erythromycin, one from clarithromycin, two from chlorpyrifos, and one from imidacloprid. Then, the presence and behavior through DWTP treatment of priority substances and their DBPs were investigated in order to evaluate their generation in real working conditions. Two of the potential DBPs, anhydroerythromycin, and N-desmethyl clarithromycin were already identified in the raw water of DWTP, but N-desmethyl clarithromycin was also generated after the chlorine dioxide treatment step. Both compounds were eliminated by the treatments applied in the DWTP; anhydroerythromycin was eliminated after ozonation in the upgraded conventional treatment and after reverse osmosis in the advanced treatment while N-desmethyl clarithromycin is recalcitrant in the upgraded conventional treatment, but it was eliminated by reverse osmosis.

Toxicity of three emerging contaminants to non-target marine organisms

Coastal areas are continually impacted by anthropic activities because they shelter large urban conglomerates. Urban effluents directly or indirectly end up reaching the marine environment, releasing a large number of pollutants which include the so-called contaminants of emerging concern (CECs), since the conventional treatment plants are not effective in removing these compounds from the effluents. These substances include hormones, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, nanoparticles, biocides, among others. The aim of this study was to evaluate the toxicity of the 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), and bisphenol-A (BPA) to two marine crustaceans and one echinoderm, evaluating the following parameters: survival (Artemia sp. and Mysidopsis juniae), embryo-larval development (Echinometra lucunter). The LC₅₀ values calculated in the acute toxicity tests showed that the compounds were more toxic to M. juniae than to the Artemia sp. Among the three contaminants, EE2 was the most toxic (LC_50-48h = 18.4 ± 2.7 mg L^-1 to Artemia sp.; LC_50-96h = 0.36 ± 0.07 mg L^-1 to M. juniae). The three tested compounds affected significantly the embryonic development of the sea urchin in all tested concentrations, including ecologically relevant concentrations, indicating the potential risk that these contaminants may present to the marine biota.

Ecotoxic effects of loratadine and its metabolic and light-induced derivatives

Loratadine and desloratadine are second-generation antihistaminic drugs. Because of human administration, they are continuously released via excreta into wastewater treatment plants and occur in surface waters as residues and transformation products (TPs). Loratadine and desloratadine residues have been found at very low concentrations (ng/L) in the aquatic environment but their toxic effects are still not well known. Both drugs are light-sensitive even under environmentally simulated conditions and some of the photoproducts have been isolated and characterized. The aim of the present study was to investigate the acute and chronic ecotoxicity of loratadine, desloratadine and their light-induced transformation products in organisms of the aquatic trophic chain. Bioassays were performed in the alga Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata, the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus and in two crustaceans, Thamnocephalus platyurus and Ceriodaphnia dubia. Loratadine exerted its acute and chronic toxicity especially on Ceriodaphnia dubia (LC50: 600 µg/L, EC50: 28.14 µg/L) while desloratadine showed similar acute toxicity among the organisms tested and it was the most chronically effective compound in Ceriodaphnia dubia and Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata. Generally, transformation products were less active in both acute and chronic assays.

Pharmaceuticals in freshwater aquatic environments: A comparison of the African and European challenge

Hundreds of tons of pharmaceutical compounds are annually dispensed and consumed worldwide. Pharmaceuticals are an important class of emerging environmental micropollutants: their presence in water bodies is an increasing environmental concern. The aim of this review paper is to provide a comprehensive review of the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in freshwater aquatic environments in the African and European context. A literature survey has been performed, resulting in 3024 data points related to environmental occurrence. The concentration levels of 71 pharmaceuticals were assessed. The top ten most frequently detected and quantified compounds in both continents were sulfamethoxazole, carbamazepine, diclofenac, trimethoprim, ibuprofen, naproxen, paracetamol (acetaminophen), ketoprofen, venlafaxine and clarithromycin. The maximum concentrations of 17β-estradiol, estriol, ciprofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, paracetamol, naproxen reported in African aquatic environments were ~3140, ~20,000, ~125, ~100, ~215 and ~171 times higher, respectively, than the concentrations reported in European based studies. The variation in pharmaceutical consumption, partial removal of pharmaceuticals in wastewater treatment processes, and the direct discharge of livestock animal farm wastewater were identified among the major reasons for the observed differences. Several pharmaceuticals were found in aquatic environments of both continents in concentration levels higher than their ecotoxicity endpoints. In Europe, compounds such as diclofenac, ibuprofen, triclosan, sulfadimidine, carbamazepine and fluoxetine were reported in a concentration higher than the available ecotoxicity endpoints. In Africa, much more compounds reached concentrations more than the ecotoxicity endpoints, including diclofenac, ibuprofen, paracetamol, naproxen, ciprofloxacin, triclosan, trimethoprim, sulfamethoxazole, carbamazepine and fluoxetine, estriol and 17β-estradiol. Details for each therapeutic group are presented in this review.

Development and validation of an analytical method for determination of pharmaceuticals in fish muscle based on QuEChERS extraction and SWATH acquisition using LC-QTOF-MS/MS system

This study aimed at developing an analytical method for the extraction and quantification of 21 pharmaceutical actives compounds (PhACs) present in fish muscle. Using Norwegian Atlantic salmon as matrix, two extraction methods for PhACs were tested: ultrasound extraction (USE) using methanol (MeOH), acetonitrile (MeCN) or a mixture of MeCN:MeOH (1:1, v/v) as extracting solvents, and QuEChERS method using three different extraction salts. After selecting QuEChERS Original as extracting method of the analytes, three different clean-up methods were evaluated with respect to their efficiency to remove coextracted fat and lipids such as Enhanced Matrix Removal (EMR) and HLB prime. The dispersive-SPE EMR yielded the best recoveries for 21 of 27 analytes. PhACs were quantified by UPLC-MS/MS using SWATH acquisition mode. The method was validated in terms of recoveries, accuracy, linearity, precision, matrix effects at three levels of concentration: 25, 200 and 500 ng g^-1 dw of fish muscle. For the majority of the analytes the recoveries were over 70%. Finally, the validated method was applied to natural riverine fish from the Evrotas river (Greece) and the Adige river (Italy) with positive findings for acetaminophen, propranolol, and venlafaxine reaching concentrations as high as 80 ng g^-1 of muscle.

Assessing the effects of environmentally relevant concentrations of antidepressant mixtures to fathead minnows exposed over a full life cycle

Antidepressant drugs have been detected in municipal wastewater effluents (MWWEs) at ng/L to low μg/L concentrations. We exposed fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) over a full lifecycle to a mixture of five antidepressants at concentrations similar to a MWWE (1× AntiD Mix); venlafaxine at 2400 ng/L, citalopram at 240 ng/L, fluoxetine at 90 ng/L, sertraline at 20 ng/L, and bupropion at 90 ng/L, and 10× these concentrations (i.e. 10× AntiD Mix). Mean measured concentrations of venlafaxine, citalopram, fluoxetine, sertraline, and bupropion were 2300, 160, 110, 7 ng/L, and below detection limits, respectively, for the 1× AntiD Mix, and 33,000, 2900, 1000, 210, and 100 ng/L, respectively for the 10× AntiD Mix. During the life-cycle exposure, no significant changes were observed in survival of fathead minnows. When male fish from the exposed treatments reached maturity, their weights were increased compared to control males. There were no significant differences in condition factor, gonadosomatic index, or liver-somatic index in the exposed fish. Exposed fathead minnows produced similar numbers of eggs as control fish, and there were no changes in nest-defense behaviours of male minnows. Egg quality, % fertilization, and % hatching in F1 fry were unaffected by exposure to the antidepressants. Eggs hatched 0.5 d earlier, deformities in fry were 50% lower, and there were transient decreases in length of F1 larvae at 8 days post-hatch in offspring from the treatment with the 10× AntiD Mix. Overall, exposure to the antidepressant mixture at environmentally relevant concentrations (i.e. 1× AntiD Mix) caused no adverse effects in fathead minnows. Exposure to the 10× AntiD Mix increased the weight of adult male minnows and caused subtle effects in F1 offspring. This study is the first to assess sublethal effects in fish exposed to mixtures of antidepressants over a full lifecycle. CAPSULE: No effects were observed in fathead minnow exposed for a lifecycle to antidepressant mixtures at environmentally-relevant concentrations.

Screening and quantification of emerging contaminants in Periyar River, Kerala (India) by using high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-Q-ToF-MS)

The presence of emerging contaminants (ECs) in different aquatic systems may contribute to hazardous effects on aquatic organisms and subsequently on human health. In the present work, liquid chromatography coupled to a quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometer (LC-Q-ToF-MS) was used to identify and quantify a series of ECs in Periyar River in Aluva region, Kerala, India. The water samples were pre concentrated using solid-phase extraction (SPE) prior to analysis. The compounds were probed in both positive and negative ionization mode using electro spray ionization (ESI). Method validations were performed for linearity, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), accuracy, and precision (intraday and inter day). The ECs were quantified using standard calibration curve. The identified nine ECs include pharmaceuticals, personal care products, steroids, surfactants, and phthalate. A relatively high concentration was observed in the case of 2-dodecyl benzene sulfonic acid (1012 ng/l) and low concentration was observed for lignocaine (4.3 ng/l; since this is below LOQ, the value is only approximate). In addition, we have identified another 28 organic compounds using the technique of non-target analysis out of which seven compounds fall in the category of surfactants. Being the first report on ECs in Periyar River, the data is very important as this river is one of the biggest and important rivers of Kerala having several purification units for drinking water in the province.

Quantification of more than 150 micropollutants including transformation products in aqueous samples by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry using scheduled multiple reaction monitoring

A direct injection, multi residue analytical method separated in two chromatographic runs was developed utilizing scheduled analysis to simultaneously quantify 154 compounds, 84 precursors and 70 transformation products (TPs)/metabolites. Improvements in the chromatographic data quality, sensitivity and reproducibility were achieved by scheduling the analysis of each analyte into pre-determined retention time windows. This study shows the influence of the scan time on the dwell time and the number of data points per peak as well as the effect on the precision of analysis. Lowering the scan time decreased dwell time to a minimal value, however, this had no negative effects on the precision. Increasing the number of data points per peak by decreasing the scan time led to more accurate peak shapes. A final set of parameters was chosen to obtain a minimum of 10 data points per peak to guarantee accurate peak shapes and thus reproducibility of analysis. A validation of the method was performed for different water matrices yielding very good linearity for all substances, with limits of quantification mainly in the lower to mid ng/L-range and recoveries mainly between 70 and 125% for surface water, bank filtrate as well as influents and effluents of wastewater treatment plants. The analysis of environmental samples and wastewater revealed the occurrence of selected precursors and TPs in all analyzed matrices: 95% of the compounds in the target list could be quantified in at least one sample. The relevance of TPs and metabolites such as valsartan acid and clopidogrel acid was also confirmed by their detection in all aqueous matrices. Wastewater indicators such as acesulfame and diclofenac were detected at elevated concentrations as well as substances such as oxipurinol which so far were not in the focus of monitoring programs. The developed method can be used for rapid analysis of various water matrices without any sample enrichment and can aid the assessment of water quality and water treatment processes.

Solid-phase extraction of multi-class pharmaceuticals from environmental water samples onto modified multi-walled carbon nanotubes followed by LC-MS/MS

In this paper, pristine and chemically treated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were employed as solid-phase extraction sorbents for the isolation and enrichment of multi-class pharmaceuticals from the surface water and groundwater, prior to liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis. Thirteen pharmaceuticals that belong to different therapeutical classes (erythromycin, azithromycin, sulfamethoxazole, diazepam, lorazepam, carbamazepine, metoprolol, bisoprolol, enalapril, cilazapril, simvastatin, clopidogrel, diclofenac) and two metabolites of metamizole (4-acetylaminoantipyrine and 4-formylaminoantipyrine) were selected for this study. The influence of chemical treatment on MWCNT surface characteristics and extraction efficiency was studied, and it was shown that HCl treatment of MWCNT leads to a decrease in the amount of surface oxygen groups and at the same time favorably affects the efficiency toward extraction of selected pharmaceuticals. After the optimization of the SPE procedure, the following conditions were chosen: 50 mg of HCl-treated MCWNT as a sorbent, 100 mL of water sample at pH 6, and 15 mL of the methanol-dichloromethane mixture (1:1, v/v) as eluent. Under optimal conditions, high recoveries (79-119%), as well as low detection (0.2 to 103 ng L^-1) and quantitation (0.5-345 ng L^-1) limits, were obtained. The optimized method was applied to the analysis of five surface water and two groundwater samples, and three pharmaceuticals were detected, the antiepileptic drug carbamazepine and two metabolites of antipyretic metamizole.

High-Throughput Screening and Quantitation of Target Compounds in Biofluids by Coated Blade Spray-Mass Spectrometry

Most contemporary methods of screening and quantitating controlled substances and therapeutic drugs in biofluids typically require laborious, time-consuming, and expensive analytical workflows. In recent years, our group has worked toward developing microextraction (μe)-mass spectrometry (MS) technologies that merge all of the tedious steps of the classical methods into a simple, efficient, and low-cost methodology. Unquestionably, the automation of these technologies allows for faster sample throughput, greater reproducibility, and radically reduced analysis times. Coated blade spray (CBS) is a μe technology engineered for extracting/enriching analytes of interest in complex matrices, and it can be directly coupled with MS instruments to achieve efficient screening and quantitative analysis. In this study, we introduced CBS as a technology that can be arranged to perform either rapid diagnostics (single vial) or the high-throughput (96-well plate) analysis of biofluids. Furthermore, we demonstrate that performing 96-CBS extractions at the same time allows the total analysis time to be reduced to less than 55 s per sample. Aiming to validate the versatility of CBS, substances comprising a broad range of molecular weights, moieties, protein binding, and polarities were selected. Thus, the high-throughput (HT)-CBS technology was used for the concomitant quantitation of 18 compounds (mixture of anabolics, β-2 agonists, diuretics, stimulants, narcotics, and β-blockers) spiked in human urine and plasma samples. Excellent precision (∼2.5%), accuracy (≥90%), and linearity (R² ≥ 0.99) were attained for all the studied compounds, and the limits of quantitation (LOQs) were within the range of 0.1 to 10 ng·mL^-1 for plasma and 0.25 to 10 ng·mL^-1 for urine. The results reported in this paper confirm CBS's great potential for achieving subsixty-second analyses of target compounds in a broad range of fields such as those related to clinical diagnosis, food, the environment, and forensics.

Photochemical transformation and wastewater fate and occurrence of omeprazole: HRMS for elucidation of transformation products and target and suspect screening analysis in wastewaters

Omeprazole is one of the world-wide most frequently prescribed and administered pharmaceuticals in humans for the relief of gastro-intestinal disorders. Despite its high worldwide consumption, omeprazole is rarely detected in urban wastewaters and environmental waters. On the other hand, its human urinary metabolites and transformation products formed through abiotic processes in the environment have been recently documented. Despite these available data, however, there is still a lack of information on the extent of environmental fate and occurrence, on elimination mechanisms and efficiencies in waste water treatment plants. In this study, the relevance of photodegradation processes on the environmental persistence of omeprazole under simulated and solar irradiation was investigated. Photodegradation experiments were performed in distilled water, lake, river and seawater, and revealed that the different matrix in natural waters significantly affect the photolytic behavior of the investigated compound. Overall, the results highlight that photodegradation process by solar irradiation significantly contributes to omeprazole degradation and elimination from the aquatic environment. TPs formed through the process were identified and elucidated by using liquid chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry. In total seven TPs were identified, among of which four were also detected as hydrolysis TPs. The Microtox bioassay showed that solar photolysis is efficient to detoxify omeprazole and its TPs in aqueous solutions. Finally, a systematic investigation was conducted in order to provide information on removal efficiency and occurrence of omeprazole and its metabolites/TPs in 8 WWTPs in North West Greece by performing target and suspect screening analysis. The findings revealed the presence of both parent compound and metabolites/TPs in wastewaters. Given, however, the scarce detection of omeprazole at fairly low concentration levels, from analytical and environmental point of view, further attention should be given to metabolites/TPs instead of the parent compound.

In Situ Calibration of a New Chemcatcher Configuration for the Determination of Polar Organic Micropollutants in Wastewater Effluent

Passive sampling is proposed as an alternative to traditional grab- and composite-sampling modes. Investigated here is a novel passive sampler configuration, the Chemcatcher containing an Atlantic HLB disk covered by a 0.2 μm poly(ether sulfone) membrane, for monitoring polar organic micropollutants (personal care products, pharmaceuticals, and illicit drugs) in wastewater effluent. In situ calibration showed linear uptake for the majority of detected micropollutants over 9 days of deployment. Sampling rates (RS) were determined for 59 compounds and were generally in the range of 0.01-0.10 L day(-1). The Chemcatcher was also suitable for collecting chiral micropollutants and maintaining their enantiomeric distribution during deployment. This is essential for their future use in developing more accurate environmental risk assessments at the enantiomeric level. Application of calibration data in a subsequent monitoring study showed that the concentration estimated for 92% of micropollutants was within a factor of 2 of the known concentration. However, their application in a legislative context will require further understanding of the properties and mechanisms controlling micropollutant uptake to improve the accuracy of reported concentrations.

Hidden drivers of low-dose pharmaceutical pollutant mixtures revealed by the novel GSA-QHTS screening method

The ecological impacts of emerging pollutants such as pharmaceuticals are not well understood. The lack of experimental approaches for the identification of pollutant effects in realistic settings (that is, low doses, complex mixtures, and variable environmental conditions) supports the widespread perception that these effects are often unpredictable. To address this, we developed a novel screening method (GSA-QHTS) that couples the computational power of global sensitivity analysis (GSA) with the experimental efficiency of quantitative high-throughput screening (QHTS). We present a case study where GSA-QHTS allowed for the identification of the main pharmaceutical pollutants (and their interactions), driving biological effects of low-dose complex mixtures at the microbial population level. The QHTS experiments involved the integrated analysis of nearly 2700 observations from an array of 180 unique low-dose mixtures, representing the most complex and data-rich experimental mixture effect assessment of main pharmaceutical pollutants to date. An ecological scaling-up experiment confirmed that this subset of pollutants also affects typical freshwater microbial community assemblages. Contrary to our expectations and challenging established scientific opinion, the bioactivity of the mixtures was not predicted by the null mixture models, and the main drivers that were identified by GSA-QHTS were overlooked by the current effect assessment scheme. Our results suggest that current chemical effect assessment methods overlook a substantial number of ecologically dangerous chemical pollutants and introduce a new operational framework for their systematic identification.

Popular pharmaceutical residues in hospital wastewater: quantification and qualification of degradation products by mass spectroscopy after treatment with membrane bioreactor

The occurrence of drugs in wastewater has been considered an imminent risk to the population, for the treatments used are usually ineffective. The presence of four popular drug residues (metformin, paracetamol, tetracycline, and enalapril) in hospital effluents, by using ultra-fast liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UFLC-MS/MS) with electrospray (ESI) ionization, and removal/degradation by membrane bioreactor (MBR) system are investigated in this study. For analysis method, all standard calibration curves showed satisfactory linearity (R (2) ≥ 0.993) within a relatively wide range. The recovery was between 70.4 and 105.0 %, and the relative standard deviation (RSD) values were within the ranges of 8.2 and 13.5 %. The effluent samples were collected at the end of the process treated in a bench-scale MBR treatment system and preconcentrated on solid-phase extraction (SPE) cartridges. Following that procedure, the chemical analysis demonstrated that the MBR system was effective in enalapril 94.3 ± 7.63 %, tetracycline 99.4 ± 0.02 %, and paracetamol 98.8 ± 0.86 % removal. However, the polar metformin was less effectively removed (35.4 ± 12.49 %). Moreover, the degradation products were investigated using high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) by quadrupole-time of flight (Q-TOF), which has been indicated a tetracycline metabolite. In order to investigate the environmental impact, the wastewater potential risk was evaluated. The risk quotient (RQ) by measure environmental concentration (MEC) and its predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) ratio (RQ = MEC/PNEC) was between 0.003 (enalapril) to 0.815 (paracetamol). Finally, this work demonstrates that UFLC-MS/MS (ESI-Q) is a sensitive and selective method for drug analysis in wastewater and with ESI-Q-TOF has the accuracy required for determining the degradation products of these compounds. Also, it indicated that membrane bioreactor systems represent a new generation of processes that have proved to outperform conventional treatment showing better effluent quality. The removal capacity studied in this work demonstrates the efficiency of this process.

Bioaccumulation and bioconcentration of carbamazepine and other pharmaceuticals in fish under field and controlled laboratory experiments. Evidences of carbamazepine metabolization by fish

There is a growing interest in evaluating the presence of pharmaceutical residues and their metabolites in aquatic biota. In this study, twenty pharmaceuticals, including carbamazepine (CBZ) and two metabolites, were analyzed in homogenates of two fish species (Gambusia affinis and Jenynsia multidentata) captured in polluted areas of the Suquía River (Córdoba, Argentina). The twenty target pharmaceuticals were found in G. affinis, while only fifteen were detected in J. multidentata. We observed a noticeable difference in the accumulation pattern of both fish species, suggesting different pathways for the bioaccumulation of polar pharmaceuticals in each fish. In order to investigate uptake and tissue distribution of pharmaceuticals, a detailed study was performed under controlled laboratory conditions in J. multidentata, exposed to CBZ. CBZ and two of its metabolites (carbamazepine-10,11-epoxide - CBZ-EP and 2-hydroxycarbamazepine - 2-OH-CBZ) were monitored in five organs of fish under laboratory exposure. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the presence of CBZ and its metabolite 2-OH-CBZ in gills, intestine, liver, brain and muscle of fish, while the metabolite carbamazepine-10,11-epoxide (CBZ-EP) was detected in gills and muscle. A ratio CBZ-EP/CBZ close to 0.1 suggests that gills and muscle of J. multidentata could metabolize CBZ through the CBZ-EP pathway. Our results reinforce the need of analyzing multiple species to account for the environmental impact of pollutants, negating the simplification of a single, "representative model" during ecotoxicological biomonitoring. To our knowledge, the biotransformation of CBZ to its metabolites (CBZ-EP, 2-OH-CBZ) in fish, under controlled laboratory in vivo exposures, is reported for the first time.

Effects of an antihistamine on carbon and nutrient recycling in streams

In stream ecosystems, microbes and macroinvertebrates consume leaf litter deposited from the riparian vegetation, and thereby recycle resources tied up in the litter. Several environmental variables influence rates of this recycling, but it is not well known if common pharmaceuticals, such as antihistamines, originating from wastewater effluent, have additional impacts. Exposure to dilute concentrations of antihistamines may adversely influence aquatic detritivorous invertebrates, because invertebrates use histamines for neurotransmission, resulting in hampered recycling of resource tied up in leaf detritus. In this study, we therefore investigated if the antihistamine fexofenadine, at a concentration of 2000ngl(-1), alters rates of leaf litter decomposition in stream microcosms. Stonefly larvae (n=10, per microcosm), together with natural microbial communities, served as main decomposer organisms on alder leaf litter. First, we used 30 microcosms containing fexofenadine, while the other 30 served as non-contaminated controls, and of each 30 microcosms, 14 contained stonefly larvae and microbes, while the remaining 16 contained only microbes. We found, in contrast to our hypothesis, that fexofenadine had no effect on leaf litter decomposition via impacts on the stonefly larvae. However, independent on if stoneflies were present or not, concentrations of organic carbon (TOC) and nitrogen (N) were strongly affected, with 20-26 and 24-31% lower concentrations of TOC and N, respectively, in the presence of fexofenadine. Second, in a scaled down follow-up experiment, we found that microbial activity increased by 85%, resulting in a 10% decrease in pH, in the presence of fexofenadine. While the antihistamine concentration we used is higher than those thus far found in the field (1-10ngl(-1)), it is still 100 times lower than the predicted no-effect concentration for fexofenadine. As such, our results indicate that low μg l(-1) levels of antihistamines can have an effect on carbon and nutrient recycling in aquatic system.

Global risk of pharmaceutical contamination from highly populated developing countries

Global pharmaceutical industry has relocated from the west to Asian countries to ensure competitive advantage. This industrial relocation has posed serious threats to the environment. The present study was carried out to assess the possible pharmaceutical contamination in the environment of emerging pharmaceutical manufacturing countries (Bangladesh, China, India and Pakistan). Although these countries have made tremendous progress in the pharmaceutical sector but most of their industrial units discharge wastewater into domestic sewage network without any treatment. The application of untreated wastewater (industrial and domestic) and biosolids (sewage sludge and manure) in agriculture causes the contamination of surface water, soil, groundwater, and the entire food web with pharmaceutical compounds (PCs), their metabolites and transformed products (TPs), and multidrug resistant microbes. This pharmaceutical contamination in Asian countries poses global risks via product export and international traveling. Several prospective research hypotheses including the development of new analytical methods to monitor these PCs/TPs and their metabolites, highly resistant microbial strains, and mixture toxicity as a consequence of pharmaceutical contamination in these emerging pharmaceutical exporters have also been proposed based on the available literature.

Future water quality monitoring--adapting tools to deal with mixtures of pollutants in water resource management

Environmental quality monitoring of water resources is challenged with providing the basis for safeguarding the environment against adverse biological effects of anthropogenic chemical contamination from diffuse and point sources. While current regulatory efforts focus on monitoring and assessing a few legacy chemicals, many more anthropogenic chemicals can be detected simultaneously in our aquatic resources. However, exposure to chemical mixtures does not necessarily translate into adverse biological effects nor clearly shows whether mitigation measures are needed. Thus, the question which mixtures are present and which have associated combined effects becomes central for defining adequate monitoring and assessment strategies. Here we describe the vision of the international, EU-funded project SOLUTIONS, where three routes are explored to link the occurrence of chemical mixtures at specific sites to the assessment of adverse biological combination effects. First of all, multi-residue target and non-target screening techniques covering a broader range of anticipated chemicals co-occurring in the environment are being developed. By improving sensitivity and detection limits for known bioactive compounds of concern, new analytical chemistry data for multiple components can be obtained and used to characterise priority mixtures. This information on chemical occurrence will be used to predict mixture toxicity and to derive combined effect estimates suitable for advancing environmental quality standards. Secondly, bioanalytical tools will be explored to provide aggregate bioactivity measures integrating all components that produce common (adverse) outcomes even for mixtures of varying compositions. The ambition is to provide comprehensive arrays of effect-based tools and trait-based field observations that link multiple chemical exposures to various environmental protection goals more directly and to provide improved in situ observations for impact assessment of mixtures. Thirdly, effect-directed analysis (EDA) will be applied to identify major drivers of mixture toxicity. Refinements of EDA include the use of statistical approaches with monitoring information for guidance of experimental EDA studies. These three approaches will be explored using case studies at the Danube and Rhine river basins as well as rivers of the Iberian Peninsula. The synthesis of findings will be organised to provide guidance for future solution-oriented environmental monitoring and explore more systematic ways to assess mixture exposures and combination effects in future water quality monitoring.

Identification of new transformation products during enzymatic treatment of tetracycline and erythromycin antibiotics at laboratory scale by an on-line turbulent flow liquid-chromatography coupled to a high resolution mass spectrometer LTQ-Orbitrap

This work describes the formation of transformation products (TPs) by the enzymatic degradation at laboratory scale of two highly consumed antibiotics: tetracycline (Tc) and erythromycin (ERY). The analysis of the samples was carried out by a fast and simple method based on the novel configuration of the on-line turbulent flow system coupled to a hybrid linear ion trap - high resolution mass spectrometer. The method was optimized and validated for the complete analysis of ERY, Tc and their transformation products within 10 min without any other sample manipulation. Furthermore, the applicability of the on-line procedure was evaluated for 25 additional antibiotics, covering a wide range of chemical classes in different environmental waters with satisfactory quality parameters. Degradation rates obtained for Tc by laccase enzyme and ERY by EreB esterase enzyme without the presence of mediators were ∼78% and ∼50%, respectively. Concerning the identification of TPs, three suspected compounds for Tc and five of ERY have been proposed. In the case of Tc, the tentative molecular formulas with errors mass within 2 ppm have been based on the hypothesis of dehydroxylation, (bi)demethylation and oxidation of the rings A and C as major reactions. In contrast, the major TP detected for ERY has been identified as the "dehydration ERY-A", with the same molecular formula of its parent compound. In addition, the evaluation of the antibiotic activity of the samples along the enzymatic treatments showed a decrease around 100% in both cases.

Fluoroquinolones and Tetracycline Antibiotics in a Portuguese Aquaculture System and Aquatic Surroundings: Occurrence and Environmental Impact

The growth of aquaculture over the past few years is widely recognized as one of the main sources of antibiotics, mainly fluoroquinolones (FQ) and tetracyclines (TC), in the aquatic environment, consequently, increasing the risk of the emergence of antibiotic bacterial resistance and promoting the spread of resistant genes. This study aimed to (1) develop and validate a multiresidue method for determination and quantification of ciprofloxacin (CIP), difloxacin (DIFL), enrofloxacin (ENR), norfloxacin (NOR), sarafloxacin (SARA), and oxytetracycline (OXY) in aquaculture waters and surrounding water bodies and (2) provide the first Portuguese data to utilize in assessment of risk of adverse effects. In addition, the potential environmental impact posed by these antibiotics to aquatic organisms, belonging to different trophic levels, when exposed to the studied aquaculture waters was also assessed. The analytical strategy comprised of solid-phase extraction (SPE) through Oasis HLB cartridges, and detection and quantification by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS(n)). Method detection limits (MDL) and method quantification limits (MQL) were in the range of 0.7-3 ng/L and 2.4-10 ng/L, respectively. Recoveries varied between 57.4 and 122.8%. The method was applied to 31 water samples collected from an aquaculture and surrounding water bodies located in north of Portugal. Residues of all antibiotics, except SARA and DIFL, were detected at concentrations ranging from 3 to 75.1 ng/L. Norfloxacin was the antibiotic present at highest frequency and concentration. Regarding the environmental impact assessment (EIA), a risk quotient higher than 1 was observed for NOR.

Fast analysis of polyphenols in royal jelly products using automated TurboFlow™-liquid chromatography-Orbitrap high resolution mass spectrometry

This study describes the development of a novel, simple and fast analytical method for the detection and quantification of polyphenols in royal jelly products, using an in-house database containing more than 50 compounds. The extraction method consisted of sample dilution, followed by a fast on-line system composed of turbulent flow chromatography (TurboFlow™) coupled to liquid chromatography (LC)-Exactive-Orbitrap analyzer. The total run time was 18min, including automated extraction, analytical chromatography and re-equilibration. The method was validated obtaining limits of quantification (LOQ) ranging from 10 to 150μg/kg. The linearity range was up to 2000μg/L and determination coefficients (R²) were higher than 0.994. Adequate recoveries were obtained at three concentration levels (500, 1000 and 2000μg/kg). This method was applied to the analysis of nine samples and the concentration of polyphenols ranged from 14 (apigenin) to 18,936μg/kg (ferulic acid).

Investigation of pharmaceutical metabolites in environmental waters by LC-MS/MS

Pharmaceuticals, once ingested, are commonly metabolized in the body into more polar and soluble forms. These compounds might not be completely removed in the wastewater treatment plants and consequently being discharged into the aquatic ecosystem. In this work, a multi-class sensitive method for the analysis of 21 compounds, including 7 widely consumed pharmaceuticals and 14 relevant metabolites, has been developed based on the use of UHPLC-MS/MS in selected reaction monitoring (SRM) mode. The method was validated in six surface waters (SW) and six effluent wastewaters (EWW) at realistic concentration levels that can be found in waters. The optimized method was applied to the analysis of different types of water samples (rivers, lakes and effluent wastewater), detecting nearly all the parent compounds and metabolites investigated in this work. This fact illustrates that not only pharmaceuticals but also their metabolites are commonly present in these types of waters. Analytical research and monitoring programs should be directed not only towards parent pharmaceuticals but also towards relevant metabolites to have a realistic overview of the impact of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment.