Rapid analysis of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in fish plasma micro-aliquots using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

For the occurrence of PPCPs from source to tap: A novel approach modified in terms of sample preservation and SPE cartridge to monitor PPCPs in our water supply

BACKGROUND

The ongoing infusion of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) into ecosystems sustains a perpetual life cycle and leads to multi-generational exposures. Limited understanding of their environmental impact and their intrinsic ability to induce physiological effect in humans, even at low doses, pose great risks to human health. Few scholarly works have conducted systematic research into the occurrence of PPCPs within potable water systems. Concurrently, the associated monitoring techniques have not been comprehensively examined with regards to the specific nature of drinking water, namely whether the significant presence of disinfectants may influence the detection of PPCPs.

RESULTS

A modified approach in terms of detailed investigation of sample preservation and optimization of an in-lab fabricated solid phase extraction (SPE) cartridge filled with DVB-VP and PS-DVB sorbent was proposed. Favorable methodological parameters were achieved, with correlation coefficients spanning from 0.9866 to 0.9998. The LODs of the PPCPs fluctuated from 0.001 to 2 μg L-1, while the LOQs varied from 0.002 to 5 μg L-1. The analysis of spiked samples disclosed a methodological precision of 2.31-9.86 % and a recovery of 52.4-119 %. We utilized the established method for analyzing 14 water samples of three categories (source water, finished water and tap water) from five centralized water supply plants. A total of 24 categories encompassing 72 PPCPs were detected, with the concentrations of PPCPs manifested a marked decrease from source water to finished water and finally to tap water.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our research meticulously examined the enhancement and purification effects of widely used commercial SPE cartridges and suggested the use of in-lab fabricated SPE cartridges packed with DVB-VP and PS-DVB adsorbents. We also conducted a systematic evaluation of the need to incorporate ascorbic acid and sodium thiosulfate as preservatives for PPCP measurement, in consideration of the unique characteristics of drinking water matrices, specifically, the significant concentration levels of disinfectants. Furthermore, the proposed method was effectively employed to study the presence of PPCPs in source water, finished water, and tap water collected from centralized water supply plants.

Assessment of wastewater-borne pharmaceuticals in tissues and body fluids from riverine fish

Riverine fish in densely populated areas is constantly exposed to wastewater-borne contaminants from effluent discharges. These can enter the organism through the skin, gills or by ingestion. Whereas most studies assessing the contaminant burden in exposed fish have focused either on muscle or a limited set of tissues. Here we set out to generate a more comprehensive overview of the distribution of pollutants across tissues by analyzing a panel of matrices including liver, kidney, skin, brain, muscle, heart, plasma and bile. To achieve a broad analyte coverage with a minimal bias towards a specific contaminant class, sample extracts from four fish species were analyzed by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) - high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) for the presence of 600 wastewater-borne pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) with known environmental relevance in river water through a suspect-screening analysis. A total of 30 compounds were detected by suspect screening in at least one of the analyzed tissues with a clear prevalence of antidepressants. Of these, 15 were detected at confidence level 2.a (Schymanski scale), and 15 were detected at confidence level 1 following confirmation with authentic standards, which furthermore enabled their quantification. The detected PhACs confirmed with level 1 of confidence included acridone, acetaminophen, caffeine, clarithromycin, codeine, diazepam, diltiazem, fluoxetine, ketoprofen, loratadine, metoprolol, sertraline, sotalol, trimethoprim, and venlafaxine. Among these substances, sertraline stood out as it displayed the highest detection frequency. The values of tissue partition coefficients for sertraline in the liver, kidney, brain and muscle were correlated with its physicochemical properties. Based on inter-matrix comparison of detection frequencies, liver, kidney, skin and heart should be included in the biomonitoring studies of PhACs in riverine fish.

Determination of 15 human pharmaceutical residues in fish and shrimp tissues by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

An efficient, reliable, and sensitive multiclass analytical method has been expanded to simultaneously determine 15 human pharmaceutical residues in fish and shrimp tissue samples by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The investigated compounds comprise ten classes, namely, analgesic, antibacterial, anticonvulsant, cardiovascular, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory, penicillins, stimulant, and sulfonamide. A simple liquid extraction procedure based on 0.1% formic acid in methanol was developed. Chromatographic conditions were optimized, and mobile phase A was 0.1% ammonium acetate, and mobile phase B was acetonitrile. The mobile phase's gradient program was as follows: 0-2 min, 15% B; 2-5 min, linear to 95% B; 5-10 min, 95% B; and 10-12 min. The limits of detection were from 0.017 to 1.371 μg/kg, while a quantification range was measured from 0.051 to 4.113 μg/kg. Finally, amoxicillin, azithromycin, caffeine, carbamazepine, ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, diclofenac, erythromycin, furosemide, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, naproxen, sulfamethoxazole, tetracycline, and triclosan were quantifiable in fish and shrimp samples.

Adsorption of five emerging contaminants on activated carbon from aqueous medium: kinetic characteristics and computational modeling for plausible mechanism

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) do not have standard regulations for discharge in the environment and are categorized as contaminants of emerging concern as they pose potential threats to ecology as well as humans even at low concentrations. Conventional treatment processes generally employed in the wastewater treatment plants are not adequately engineered for effective removal of PPCPs. Identifying cost-effective tertiary treatment is therefore, important for complete removal of PPCPs from wastewater prior to discharge or reuse. Present study demonstrates adsorption using granular-activated carbon (GAC) as a possible tertiary treatment for simultaneous removal of five PPCPs from aqueous media. Adsorbent was characterized in terms of morphology, surface area, surface charge distribution, and presence of functional groups. Performance of GAC was investigated for sorption of three hydrophilic (ciprofloxacin, acetaminophen, and caffeine) and two hydrophobic (benzophenone and irgasan) PPCPs from aqueous solution varying the process parameters (initial concentration, adsorbent dose, pH, agitation time). Langmuir isotherm model (correlation coefficients (R2): 0.993 to 0.998) appeared to fit the isotherm data better than Temkin isotherm model for these adsorbates. Adsorption efficiencies of these compounds (8.26 to 20.40 mg g-1) were in accordance with their log Kow values. While the adsorption kinetics was best explained in terms of a pseudo-second-order kinetic model, the data suggested that adsorption mechanism was mainly governed by the intraparticle diffusion. The role of physical factors like molecular volume, molecular size, and area of targeted PPCPs were investigated through computational studies which in turn can help predicting their uptake onto GAC.

Overview of Sample Preparation and Chromatographic Methods to Analysis Pharmaceutical Active Compounds in Waters Matrices

In the environment, pharmaceutical residues are a field of particular interest due to the adverse effects to either human health or aquatic and soil environment. Because of the diversity of these compounds, at least 3000 substances were identified and categorized into 49 different therapeutic classes, and several actions are urgently required at multiple steps, the main ones: (i) occurrence studies of pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) in the water cycle; (ii) the analysis of the potential impact of their introduction into the aquatic environment; (iii) the removal/degradation of the pharmaceutical compounds; and, (iv) the development of more sensible and selective analytical methods to their monitorization. This review aims to present the current state-of-the-art sample preparation methods and chromatographic analysis applied to the study of PhACs in water matrices by pinpointing their advantages and drawbacks. Because it is almost impossible to be comprehensive in all PhACs, instruments, extraction techniques, and applications, this overview focuses on works that were published in the last ten years, mainly those applicable to water matrices.

Rapid analysis of 65 pharmaceuticals and 7 personal care products in plasma and whole-body tissue samples of fish using acidic extraction, zirconia-coated silica cleanup, and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

The presence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in aquatic systems has raised concern about their potential adverse effects on aquatic organisms. Considering the fact that the physiological/biological effects of PPCPs are triggered when their concentrations in the organism exceeds the respective threshold values, it is important to understand the bioconcentration and toxicokinetics of PPCPs in aquatic organisms. In the present study, we developed a convenient analytical method for the determination of 65 pharmaceuticals and 7 personal care products (log K_ow = 0.14-6.04) in plasma and whole-body tissues of fish. The analytical method consists of ultrasound-assisted extraction in methanol/acetonitrile (1:1, v/v,) acidified with acetic acid-ammonium acetate buffer (pH 4), cleanup on a HybridSPE®-Phospholipid cartridge (zirconia-coated silica cartridge), and quantification with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Acceptable accuracy (internal standard-corrected recovery: 70%-120%) and intra- and inter-day precision (coefficient of variation: <15%) were obtained for both plasma and whole-body tissue samples. In addition, low method detection limits were achieved for both plasma (0.0077 to 0.93 ng mL^-1) and whole-body tissue (0.022 to 4.3 ng g ^- 1 wet weight), although the developed method is simple and fast - a batch of 24 samples can be prepared within 6 h, excluding the time for measurement with LC-MS/MS. The developed method was successfully applied to the analysis of PPCPs in plasma and whole-body tissue samples of fish collected in a treated wastewater-dominated stream, for a comprehensive evaluation of their bioconcentration properties. The analytical method developed in the present study is sufficiently accurate, sensitive, and rapid, and thus highly useful for the comprehensive evaluation of PPCP residues in fish and would aid in future exposome and risk assessment.

The role of PFOS on triclosan toxicity to two model freshwater organisms

Surface-active substances may enhance the bioavailability of certain pollutants by modifying the permeability of cell membranes. However, they could also interact in a positive manner by increasing toxicity to aquatic organisms. A comparative effects assessment of waterborne exposure to triclosan (TCS) alone vs. combined with perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) was herein investigated in daphnids (Daphnia magna) and medaka (Oryzias latipes) early life stages (ELS) using a battery of non-invasive behavioral, physiological and anatomical endpoints. Additionally, TCS bioaccumulation was evaluated in medaka embryos to help discern differences in effects caused by either, changes in TCS permeability or by a positive interaction with PFOS. The TCS analytical measurements in the medaka ELS exposure media revealed fast dissipation with half-lives < 12 h. The D. magna immobilization and feeding inhibition assays suggested an increased response when TCS (≥200 and 37.50 μg/L, respectively) was co-exposed with PFOS. Concentrations <800 μg TCS/L did not affect medaka ELS. However, exposures to ≥400 μg TCS/L + PFOS had effects on the embryo and eleutheroembryo viability. The morphometric analysis of the embryonic gallbladder area and the oxidative stress, determined in vivo by the manifestation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), revealed a hormetic response in both experimental sets. The TCS + PFOS experimental set generally resulted in increased gallbladder areas and ROS activity levels compared to those quantified in the corresponding TCS set. The bioaccumulation studies in the medaka embryos revealed comparable TCS levels regardless of PFOS presence. Without disregarding any TCS's enhanced bioavailability caused by the surface-active substance, overall results primarily indicate increased biological effects of TCS due to a potentiation action of PFOS as a binary mixture with TCS.

Extended liquid chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry screening method for veterinary drug, pesticide and human pharmaceutical residues in aquaculture fish

A liquid chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) screening method was developed previously to analyze for veterinary drug residues commonly found in different types of aquaculture products. This method has been further evaluated for its feasibility to detect several other classes of compounds that might also be a concern as possible contaminants in farmed tilapia, salmon, eel and shrimp. Some chemicals could contaminate water sources used in aquaculture production through agricultural run-off. These compounds include several widely used triazine herbicides, organophosphate and carbamate pesticides, as well as various discarded human pharmaceuticals. Other possible contaminants investigated were selected disinfectants, some newer antibiotics, growth promoters, and various parasiticides. The sample preparation consisted of an acidic acetonitrile extraction followed by solid-phase extraction clean-up. Data were collected with a quadrupole-Orbitrap MS using both non-targeted and targeted acquisition. This rapid clean-up procedure and HRMS detection method described previously for veterinary drug residues also worked well for many other types of compounds. Most analytes had screening limit levels between 0.5-10 ng/g in the matrices examined using exact mass identification criteria. The strategy described in this paper for testing the performance of additional analytes will help expand the applicability of the HRMS procedure as aquaculture samples can now be analyzed for a wider range of contaminants.

Bioaccumulation and risks of 24 personal care products in plasma of wild fish from the Yangtze River, China

We used a hybrid precipitation method to simultaneously extract and analyze 24 personal care products (PCPs), including 16 biocides, 4 synthetic musks, and 4 benzotriazoles, in the plasma of fish. The method's performance was validated for plasma samples with and without β-glucuronidase/aryl-sulfatase hydrolysis. The recoveries were in the range of 70-120% for most of the PCPs, except N,N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide (DEET), clotrimazole (CTZ), miconazole and itraconazole at spiking concentration of 20 and 5 ng/mL. The quantification limits ranged between 0.89 and 17.9 ng/mL (hydrolyzed plasma) and 0.85-18.5 ng/mL (non-hydrolyzed plasma), except CTZ at 77.5 ng/mL and 76.3 ng/mL. Totally, 13 PCPs were detected in plasma samples of fish collected from the Yangtze River, with a maximum concentration of 58.4 ng/mL (galaxolide). Compounds with the phenol hydroxyl groups of parabens or triclosan in hydrolyzed plasma showed higher concentrations than those in unhydrolyzed plasma with the ratio of conjugation (glucuronides + sulfates) forms up to 86%. The median values for the logarithm of bioaccumulation factors were between 1.39 and 4.15, which were 2-3 orders of magnitude higher than the theoretical logarithm of bioconcentration factors. Using the fish plasma model, the effect ratios (effect concentration/measured plasma concentration ratios) of tonalide, galaxolide, benzotriazole, triclosan, and DEET reached 0.35, 4.15, 3.78, 7.52, and 9.24, respectively. These are recognized as priority chemicals for further risk assessment.

Bioaccumulation behaviour of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in a constructed wetland

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is an important class of environmental contaminants and has gained increasing concerns in recent years. The bioaccumulation behaviour of PPCPs in wetland plants is not well understood. In the present study we report results of a field investigation to assess the bioaccumulation behaviour and phytoremediation efficacy of several PPCPs in Lorong Halus Wetland, a large-scale constructed wetland system in Singapore, constructed for the treatment of landfill leachate. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) based methods were employed to quantify concentrations of target PPCPs in leachate and flowing water, as well as wetland plants (roots and shoots), at different locations in the wetland system. The results indicated the presence of several PPCPs in leachate, water and vegetation in the wetland. Bioconcentration factors (BCFs) in the dominant wetland plant, Typha angustifolia, ranged between approximately 60 and 2000. Results indicated that Cattail Typha angustifolia was capable of remediating PPCPs to various extends, with bioconcentration factors ranging up to 2000. The suitability for phytoremediation depends on the physical chemical properties such as hydrophilicity and lipophilicity of these PPCPs.

Aquatic ecotoxicity of an antidepressant, sertraline hydrochloride, on microbial communities

Sertraline hydrochloride (Ser-HCl), a widely used antidepressant, becomes an aquatic contaminant via metabolic excretion and improper disposal; however, it is unknown how Ser-HCl affects aquatic microbial communities. The present study investigated the effects of Ser on the structures of aquatic microbial communities via high-throughput sequencing analyses. Ser-HCl treatment inhibited the growth of two model algae (the green alga, Chlorella vulgaris, and the cyanobacterium, Microcystis aeruginosa) and decreased the chlorophyll a (Chl-a) concentration in the microcosm to reduce the photosynthetic efficiency. High-throughput sequencing analyses showed that exposure to Ser-HCl disturbed the balance of cyanobacteria species by stimulating the growth of specific cyanobacteria. Among eukaryotes, the richness as well as the diversity indices were significantly enhanced after 5 days of Ser-HCl treatment but sharply decreased with exposure time. Nucleariida occupied an absolute majority (97.83%) within the eukaryotes, implicating that Ser-HCl disturbed the ecological equilibrium in microcosms. Ser-HCl will continue to be an environmental contaminant due to its wide usage and production. Our current study clarified the potential ecological risk of Ser-HCl to aquatic microorganisms. These findings suggest that more attention should be given to the negative effects of these bioactive pollutants on aquatic environments.

Development of a sensitive and quantitative capillary LC-UV method to study the uptake of pharmaceuticals in zebrafish brain

The present study explores the potential of 10-day-old zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a predictive blood-brain-barrier model using a set of 7 pharmaceutical agents. For this purpose, zebrafish were incubated with each of these 7 drugs separately via the route of immersion and the concentration reaching the brain was determined by applying a brain extraction procedure allowing isolation of the intact brain from the head of the zebrafish larvae. Sample analysis was performed utilizing capillary ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (cap-UHPLC) on a Pepmap RSLC C18 capillary column (150 mm × 300 μm, d_p = 2 μm) coupled to a variable wavelength UV detector. Gradient separation was performed in 28 min at a flow rate of 5 μL/min and the optimal injection volume was determined to be 1 μL. The brain extraction procedure was established for the zebrafish strain TG898 exhibiting red fluorescence of the brain, allowing control of the integrity of the extracted parts. Quantitative experiments carried out on pooled samples of six zebrafish (n = 6) demonstrated the selective semipermeable nature of the blood-brain barrier after incubating the zebrafish at the maximum tolerated concentration for the investigated pharmaceuticals. The obtained brain-to-trunk ratios ranged between 0.3 for the most excluded compound and 1.2 for the pharmaceutical agent being most accumulated in the brain of the fish. Graphical abstract Workflow of brain extraction to study the uptake of pharmaceuticals in the brain of zebrafish larvae.

Bioaccumulation Behavior of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Adult Zebrafish (Danio rerio): Influence of Physical-Chemical Properties and Biotransformation

The factors influencing bioaccumulation of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in aquatic organisms are not well understood. The present study involved a comprehensive laboratory investigation to assess the bioaccumulation behavior of several PPCPs in adult zebrafish (Danio rerio). The studied PPCPs included several ionogenic organic compounds (IOCs) such as weak acids and weak bases. Experiments involved two exposure groups (high and low) and a control group, with a 6 day aqueous exposure, followed by a 7 day depuration phase under flow-through conditions. Uptake rate constants (k_u) ranged between 0.19 and 8610 L·kg^-1·d^-1, while depuration rate constants (k_d) ranged between 0.14 and 5.14 d^-1 in different fish tissues. Steady-state bioconcentration factor (BCF_ss) values varied widely among the studied PPCPs, ranging from 0.09 to 6,460. In many cases, BCF_ss values of individual PPCPs differed substantially among different fish tissues. Positive linear relationships were observed between log BCF_ss values and physical-chemical properties such as octanol-water distribution coefficients (log D_ow), membrane-water distribution coefficients (log D_mw), albumin-water distribution coefficients (log D_BSAw), and muscle protein-water distribution coefficients (log D_mpw), indicating the importance of lipid-, phospholipid-, and protein-water partitioning. The results also showed that for many PPCPs, the estimated whole-body metabolism rate constant (k_m) values were comparable to the observed depuration rate (k_d), indicating that metabolism plays a major role in the overall elimination of these compounds in zebrafish. An exception was sertraline, which exhibited a k_d value (0.4-0.5 d^-1) that was much higher than the estimated whole-body k_m (0.03 d^-1). Overall, the results help to better understand the influence of physical-chemical properties and biotransformation on bioaccumulation behavior of these contaminants of concern in aquatic organisms.

Determination of carbamazepine and 12 degradation products in various compartments of an outdoor aquatic mesocosm by reliable analytical methods based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

The aims of this work are to develop suitable analytical methods to determine the widely used anticonvulsant carbamazepine and 12 of its degradation/transformation products in water, sediment, fish (Gasterosteus aculeatus) and mollusc (Dreissena polymorpha). Protocols based on solid phase extraction for water, pressurized-liquid extraction for sediments and QuEChERS (quick easy cheap efficient rugged and safe) extraction for both organisms followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) are developed, validated and finally applied to samples collected during a 6-month experiment in outdoor mesocosms. Very low detection limits are reached, allowing environmentally realistic doses (namely, 0.05, 0.5 and 5 μg/L nominal concentrations) to be employed. The results indicate several metabolites and/or transformation products in each compartment investigated, with concentrations sometimes being greater than that of the parent carbamazepine. Biotic degradation of carbamazepine is demonstrated in water, leading to 10,11-dihydrocarbamazepine and 10,11-epoxycarbamazepine. In sediment, the degradation results in the formation of acridine, and 2- and 3-hydroxycarbamazepine. Finally, in both organisms, a moderate bioaccumulation is observed together with a metabolization leading to 10,11-epoxycarbamazepine in fish and 2-hydroxycarbamazepine in mollusc. Acridone is also present in fish. This study provides new and interesting data, helping to elucidate how chronic exposure to carbamazepine at relevant concentrations may affect impact freshwater ecosystems.

Development of a sensitive and quantitative UHPLC-MS/MS method to study the whole-body uptake of pharmaceuticals in zebrafish

An analytical procedure to measure the whole-body uptake of pharmaceuticals in zebrafish has been developed using state-of-the-art methodologies. A sample preparation procedure for 9 pharmaceuticals displaying a variety in physicochemical properties was developed using 10-day old zebrafish (TG898). For an efficient homogenization of the samples and subsequent recovery of the compounds of interest, different amounts of organic solvents in combination with acidic modifiers were added to zebrafish samples. Samples were subsequently processed using a powerful bath sonicator and centrifuged. Supernatant was then removed and evaporated in a vacuum oven before being reconstituted in a mobile phase-like solvent. Samples were analyzed using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) on an Acquity BEH C₁₈ column (100 × 2.1mm, d_p=1.7µm) coupled to a Waters Xevo TQ-S mass spectrometer. For this purpose, a generic gradient was run, wherein the percentage of acetonitrile was varied from 3% to 82% in 10.5min at a flow rate of 0.41mL/min. Linearity of the method was demonstrated for all compounds (R² > 0.997) in a practically relevant concentration range. Matrix effects were between 81% and 106%, except for amitriptyline (51%). Using this method, it was demonstrated that a sample pretreatment using 1:2 (v/v) water:methanol in combination with 0.1% formic acid resulted in acceptable recoveries between 74% and 100% for all compounds. Together with the obtained lower limits of quantification of the analytical method (between 0.005 and 1.5ng/mL), this allowed the use of a single zebrafish to study the whole-body uptake of a particular drug, after incubating zebrafish at the maximum tolerated concentration for this drug.

Occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in effluent-dominated Saudi Arabian coastal waters of the Red Sea

The occurrence of selected pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and the pesticide atrazine were investigated in seawater samples collected from stations located at effluent dominated sites in the Saudi Arabian coastal waters of the Red Sea. PPCPs were analysed using solid phase extraction (SPE) followed by high performance liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). A multi component method for the ultra-trace level quantification of 13 target PPCPs in Seawater was developed and validated for the here performed study. The method procedure is described in detail in the supplementary material section. 26 samples from 7 distinct locations (2 directly influenced by continuous sewage release) were chosen for the sampling of surface seawater. Based upon local sales information, 25 target substances (20 PPCPs, 4 pesticides and 1 stimulant) were chosen for the here reported method development. Thirteen PPCPs were detected and quantified in a total of 26 seawater samples. Metformin, diclofenac, acetaminophen, and caffeine were identified as the most abundant PPCPs, detected in maximum concentration higher than 3 μg/L (upper quantification limit for the here developed method). Concentrations were in the range of 7- >3000 (metformin), <LOQ - 2379 ng/L (acetaminophen) and 62- >3000 ng/L (caffeine). The contribution of direct sewage release on the PPCP levels detected was obvious, the target PPCPs were detected in the Al-Arbaeen and Al-Shabab coastal lagoons in high concentrations due to the low water exchange with the open sea and still ongoing sewage releases in the lagoons. Also, substantial amounts of antibiotics were detected in all samples. Levels and distribution profile of the detected PPCPs revealed high level release rates and give raise to concern on potential environmental risks associated with the here document long term exposure on the fragile coastal marine environment of the region but particularly in the nearby protected coral reef environment outside the harbour region of Jeddah.

Environmental exposure to pharmaceuticals: A new technique for trace analysis of carbamazepine and its metabolites in human urine

Pharmaceutically active compounds are taken up and accumulate in crops irrigated with treated wastewater. This raises the concern of chronic human exposure to pharmaceuticals via food consumption. Thus, there is a need to develop a reliable technique to detect and quantify pharmaceuticals at environmentally relevant concentrations in human biological matrices, particularly urine. In this study, we focus on carbamazepine, an antiepileptic drug and recalcitrant compound that is taken up by crops-making it an excellent model compound for this study. This paper presents a new analytical technique enabling quantification of trace concentrations of carbamazepine and its metabolites in the urine of individuals who have been environmentally exposed. Sample preparation included extraction with acetonitrile followed by clean-up through mixed-mode ion-exchange cartridges and analysis using LC/MS/MS. This technique, which was validated for a wide range of concentrations (5-2000 ng L(-1)), exhibits low limits of quantification (3.0-7.2 ng L(-1)), acceptable recovery levels (70-120%), and low relative standard deviation (<20%). Unlike currently available methods for the analysis of water or treated wastewater that require large volumes (up to 1 L), the new method uses only 10 mL of urine. Moreover, relative to available methods for carbamazepine detection in the urine of individuals who are chronically treated with this drug, the limit of quantification values with our method are six orders of magnitude lower. The newly developed method has been successfully applied for the quantification of carbamazepine and its metabolites in the urine of healthy people exposed to this pharmaceutical through their diet. Our analytical protocol can provide the scientific community and stakeholders with real data for risk assessments and the design of policies ensuring safe use of wastewater for crop irrigation.

TPhP exposure disturbs carbohydrate metabolism, lipid metabolism, and the DNA damage repair system in zebrafish liver

Triphenyl phosphate is a high production volume organophosphate flame retardant that has been detected in multiple environmental media at increasing concentrations. The environmental and health risks of triphenyl phosphate have drawn attention because of the multiplex toxicity of this chemical compound. However, few studies have paid close attention to the impacts of triphenyl phosphate on liver metabolism. We investigated hepatic histopathological, metabolomic and transcriptomic responses of zebrafish after exposure to 0.050 mg/L and 0.300 mg/L triphenyl phosphate for 7 days. Metabolomic analysis revealed significant changes in the contents of glucose, UDP-glucose, lactate, succinate, fumarate, choline, acetylcarnitine, and several fatty acids. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that related pathways, such as the glycosphingolipid biosynthesis, PPAR signaling pathway and fatty acid elongation, were significantly affected. These results suggest that triphenyl phosphate exposure markedly disturbs hepatic carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in zebrafish. Moreover, DNA replication, the cell cycle, and non-homologous end-joining and base excision repair were strongly affected, thus indicating that triphenyl phosphate hinders the DNA damage repair system in zebrafish liver cells. The present study provides a systematic analysis of the triphenyl phosphate-induced toxic effects in zebrafish liver and demonstrates that low concentrations of triphenyl phosphate affect normal metabolism and cell cycle.