Identification and determination of chlorinated azoles in sludge using liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight and triple quadrupole mass spectrometry platforms

Antifungal drugs in the aquatic environment: A review on sources, occurrence, toxicity, health effects, removal strategies and future challenges

Fungal infections pose a significant global health burden, resulting in millions of severe cases and deaths annually. The escalating demand for effective antifungal treatments has led to a rise in the wholesale distribution of antifungal drugs, which consequently has led to their release into the environment, posing a threat to ecosystems and human health. This article aims to provide a comprehensive review of the presence and distribution of antifungal drugs in the environment, evaluate their potential ecological and health risks, and assess current methods for their removal. Reviewed studies from 2010 to 2023 period have revealed the widespread occurrence of 19 various antifungals in natural waters and other matrices at alarmingly high concentrations. Due to the inefficiency of conventional water treatment in removing these compounds, advanced oxidation processes, membrane filtration, and adsorption techniques have been developed as promising decontamination methods.In conclusion, this review emphasizes the urgent need for a comprehensive understanding of the presence, fate, and removal of antifungal drugs in the environment. By addressing the current knowledge gaps and exploring future prospects, this study contributes to the development of strategies for mitigating the environmental impact of antifungal drugs and protecting ecosystems and human health.

Green Assessment of Analytical Procedures for the Determination of Pharmaceuticals in Sewage Sludge and Soil

The main difficulties when analyzing pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in solid environmental samples is the complexity of the samples and the low concentration levels of such pollutants. Most efforts are focused in achieving good analytical performance parameters such as high recoveries or low detection limits without considering if the methods are environmentally friendly. In this work, the main tools proposed for assessing the greenness of analytical methodologies (Analytical Eco-scale, Green Analytical Procedure Index (GAPI), and Analytical GREEnness metric (AGREE)) have been applied to nine analytical procedures that include recent important analytical tendencies. The three metrics identified the paper spray ionization method as the greenest procedure since it used untreated samples for direct mass spectrometry analysis. Using Analytical Eco-scale, most of the evaluated procedures were rated as "acceptable green". However, the use of internal standards resulted key in the environmental impact of the method which provided contradictory results versus other metrics. GAPI found greenness similarities between most of selected methods, hindering a greenness classification. AGREE allowed the weighting of each evaluation criterion providing a greenness ranking. The application of each metric detecting their weaknesses and strengths was discussed. The incorporation of validation analytical features in greenness metrics was a gap revealed.

Microbiological and spectrophotometric methods for the determination of tioconazole: A comparative thermodynamic study

Two sensitive microbiological and charge transfer spectrophotometric methods have been developed for the quantitative determination of the antifungal drug, tioconazole, in its pure form and pharmaceutical preparations. The microbiological assay was based on the agar disk diffusion method by measuring the diameter of the inhibition zones related to different concentrations of tioconazole. The spectrophotometric method relied on charge transfer complex formation between tioconazole as an n-donor and chloranilic acid as a π-acceptor at room temperature. The formed complex was measured at λ_max = 530 nm. The molar absorptivity and the formation constant of the formed complex were determined using different models, including the Benesi-Hildebrand, Foster-Hammick-Wardley, Scott, Pushkin-Varshney-Kamoonpuri, and Scatchard equations. Different thermodynamic parameters associated with the complex formation, including the free energy change (ΔG°), the standard enthalpy (ΔH°), and the standard entropy change (ΔS°), were evaluated. The two methods were validated in conformity with ICH-recommended guidelines and employed successfully for the quantification of tioconazole in both pure form and pharmaceutical formulations.

Antifungal medicines in the terrestrial environment: Levels in biosolids from England and Wales

Antifungals are used widely in clinical and agricultural practice to control fungal growth, either treating or preventing infection. There are reports of increasing prevalence of resistance to antifungals in human pathogens and concern that their use in agriculture is driving clinical resistance in patients. While crop protection products are the most obvious source in agriculture, a further source may be biosolids from wastewater treatment. In the UK, these are applied to land to provide nutrients and improve soil structure for crops. In this study, biosolids from ten sites in England and one in Wales were analysed for clinical antifungals. Ketoconazole and miconazole were detected in all samples with a median concentration of 0.87 and 0.54 mg kg^-1 dry weight (DW), respectively. Clotrimazole was detected at seven of eleven sites at a median level of 1.32 mg kg^-1 DW and its absence at four others was considered treatment related. Two prescription-only and systemic medications, itraconazole and posaconazole, were frequently detected with median concentrations of 0.14 mg kg^-1 DW and 0.09 mg kg^-1 DW, respectively. The biosolid levels of itraconazole found in this study were two orders of magnitude higher than an indicative Predicted No Effect Concentration for resistance selection (PNEC-R) in soil. Neither fluconazole, griseofulvin, and voriconazole nor flucytosine and nystatin were found above the limit of detection of 0.01 or 0.1 mg kg^-1 as received, respectively. The findings show that biosolids represent a viable pathway for antifungal agents to reach soil.

Wide-scope target and suspect screening of emerging contaminants in sewage sludge from Nigerian WWTPs by UPLC-qToF-MS

There is currently a paucity of scientific data in Africa on the analysis and occurrence of emerging contaminants in sewage sludge. In this work, the occurrence of European Union (EU) Water Framework Directive priority substances and wide-range emerging contaminants were investigated and discussed comprehensively in the sewage sludge samples from three different wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Lagos, Nigeria. The identification strategy was implemented by target and suspect screening in liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. 250 compounds were identified in the sewage sludge samples from the investigated WWTPs. From 250 detected compounds, 182 compounds were quantified, and 78 compounds significantly show high environmental risk score (calculated from provisional no-effect concentrations values (PNEC) as well as their environmental quality data (EQs)). Most of contaminants detected at high amount belong to pharmaceuticals and are from hospital WWTP. While the highest concentration (72.4 mg kg^-1) was measured for salicylic acid (a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug), antibiotics showed high concentrations up to 24.4 and 28.4 mg kg^-1 for ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin, respectively. Three simple factors including frequency of exceedance, frequency of occurrence and extent of exceedance were used to aid prioritization of these substances in future monitoring campaigns. This work presents the first comprehensive and wide-scope screening of a large number of emerging contaminants in sewage sludge from Nigerian WWTPs.

Pronounced capping effect of olaminosomes as nanostructured platforms in ocular candidiasis management

The aim of this study was to formulate and boost ocular targeting of Fenticonazole Nitrate (FTN)-loaded olaminosomes in order to improve drug corneal permeation and candidiasis treatment. Olaminosomes were formulated by ethanol injection technique applying a central composite design. The independent variables were: span 80 amount (mg) (A), oleylamine concentration (mg%) (B) and oleic acid: drug ratio (C). The dependent responses were: percent entrapment efficiency (EE %), particle size (PS), poly-dispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP) and in vitro drug release after 10 hours (Q10h). Numerical optimization by Design-Expert® software was adopted to select the optimum formula. This formula was chosen based on highest EE %, ZP (as absolute value) and Q10h and lowest PS and PDI. The optimum formula was subjected to further in vitro characterization via Differential scanning calorimetry, Transmission electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, pH determination, effect of storage, influence of terminal sterilization, detection of Minimal Inhibitory Concentration and ex vivo corneal penetration analysis. Safety and antifungal activity of the optimum formula were tested through various in vivo studies like ocular irritancy, corneal tolerance, corneal uptake and susceptibility test. The optimum formula with the maximum desirability value (0.972) revealed EE% (84.24%), PS (117.55 nm), ZP (-74.85 mV) and Q10h (91.26%) respectively. The optimum formula demonstrated ocular tolerance with enhanced corneal penetration behavior (428.66 µg/cm²) and boosted antifungal activity (56.13%) compared to FTN suspension (174.66 µg/cm² and 30.83%). The previous results ensured the ability of olaminosomes to enhance the corneal penetration and antifungal efficacy of Fenticonazole Nitrate.

Corneal targeted fenticonazole nitrate-loaded novasomes for the management of ocular candidiasis: Preparation, in vitro characterization, ex vivo and in vivo assessments

The purpose of this manuscript was to develop and optimize Fenticonazole Nitrate (FTN)-loaded novasomes aiming to enhance drug corneal penetration and to improve its antifungal activity. Ethanol injection was used to formulate FTN-loaded novasomes adopting a central composite design. The researched factors were: stearic acid concentration (g%) (A), span 80: drug ratio (B) and cholesterol amount (mg) (C), and their effects on percent entrapment efficiency (EE%), particle size (PS), poly-dispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), and in vitro drug release after 8 hours (Q8h) were studied. Numerical optimization by Design-Expert® software was employed to select the optimum formula in respect to highest EE%, ZP (as absolute value), and Q8h >80% and lowest PS and PDI. Additional evaluation of the optimum formula was accomplished by short term stability study, effect of gamma sterilization, determination of Minimal Inhibitory Concentration and ex vivo corneal permeation study. The in vivo evaluation of the optimum formula was done to ensure its safety via in vivo ocular irritancy and in vivo corneal tolerance studies. Also, the efficacy was confirmed through in vivo corneal uptake study and susceptibility test. The optimum formula with the highest desirability value (0.738) showed EE% (94.31%), PS (197.05 nm), ZP (-66.95 mV) and Q8h (85.33%). It revealed to be safe, with augmented corneal permeation (527.98 µg/cm²) that leads to higher antifungal activity. The above results confirmed the validity of novasomes to improve the corneal permeation and antifungal activity of Fenticonazole Nitrate.

Identification and determination of emerging pollutants in sewage sludge driven by UPLC-QTOF-MS data mining

Sludge from sewage treatment plants (STPs) is recognized as a sink of moderate to high lipophilic compounds resistant to biodegradation. Herein, we investigate the presence of emerging pollutants in sewage sludge combining the information provided by mass spectrometry detection, following ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC), with the use of an accurate spectral database of pesticides and pharmaceuticals. In a first step, the performance of matrix solid-phase dispersion, as sample preparation technique, and two non-target data acquisition strategies (data dependent, DDA, and data independent analysis modes, DIA), used in combination with a UPLC quadrupole time-of-flight system, are assessed using a selection of deuterated compounds added either to freeze-dried sludge samples, or to sludge extracts. Possibilities and limitations of both modes are discussed. Following the DDA approach, a group of 68 micropollutants was identified in sludge from different STPs. Some of them are reported in this compartment for the first time. Finally, semi-quantitative concentration data are reported for a group of 37 pollutants in samples obtained from 16 STPs. Out of them, 10 pharmaceuticals, showing detection frequencies and median sludge residues above 50% and 100 ng g^-1, respectively; are highlighted as pollutants to be monitored in sludge in order to understand their behaviour during the wastewater treatment.

Target, Suspect and Non-Target Screening of Silylated Derivatives of Polar Compounds Based on Single Ion Monitoring GC-MS

There is growing interest in determining the unidentified peaks within a sample spectra besides the analytes of interest. Availability of reference standards and hyphenated instruments has been a key and limiting factor in the rapid determination of emerging pollutants in the environment. In this work, polar compounds were silylated and analyzed with gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to determine the abundant fragments within the single ion monitoring (SIM) mode and methodology. Detection limits and recoveries of the compounds were established in river water, wastewater, biosolid and sediment matrices. Then, specific types of polar compounds that are classified as emerging contaminants, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, in the environment were targeted in the Mgeni and Msunduzi Rivers. We also performed suspect and non-target analysis screening to identify several other polar compounds in these rivers. A total of 12 compounds were quantified out of approximately 50 detected emerging contaminants in the Mgeni and Msunduzi Rivers. This study is significant for Africa, where the studies of emerging contaminants are limited and not usually prioritized.

[Determination of Antifungal Drugs in Fish and Livestock Products Using LC-MS/MS]

We developed an analytical method for determining 15 antifungal drugs, 2 antiparasitic drugs, and 3 veterinary drugs in fish and livestock products using LC-MS/MS. First, 50% ethanol was added to their products, and the mixture was homogenized to reduce drug degradation. Thereafter, 20 drugs were extracted from the pretreated sample mixture using acetonitrile. Cleanup was performed using an alumina-N SPE cartridge. Finally, chromatographic separation was performed using a fully porous octadecyl silanized silica column. The new method is applicable to fish in which the matrix hampers accurate analysis. It was validated on 8 fish and livestock products. Drug recovery rates ranged from 70.2 to 109.3%, RSDs of repeatability were <18.0%, and RSDs of within-laboratory reproducibility were <18.7%. It fulfills the Japanese guideline criteria. The limits of quantification were estimated as 3 ng/g.

The Use of Boron-Doped Diamond Electrode for the Determination of Selected Biocides in Water Samples

In recent years, the remains of chemical substances in water environments, referred to as emerging organic contaminations, have been more and more often studied by analysts. This work shows the possibility of using a boron-doped diamond electrode to determine low concentration levels of remains of pharmaceuticals in environmental samples. The study focused on selected biocides from the group of azole fungicides (itraconazole and posaconazole) and was performed using quick and sensitive electrochemical methods. The cyclic voltammetry method was used in order to determine the properties of these compounds, whereas analytical characterization was performed using square wave voltammetry. The work involved the specification of the optimum electrooxidation conditions of the selected fungicides, their comparative characterization, and the development of a new, sensitive methods of itraconazole and posaconazole assay. The proposed procedures allowed us to determine itraconazole in the range from 7.9 × 10−8 to 1.2 × 10−6 moL·L−1 and posaconazole in the range from 5.7 × 10−8 to 8.44 × 10−7 moL·L−1. The relative standard deviation of the measurements did not exceed 5.85%. The developed procedures were successfully used to determine itraconazole and posaconazole concentration in water samples and the assay recovery was between 93.5% and 102.8%.

Analyzing a broader spectrum of endocrine active organic contaminants in sewage sludge with high resolution LC-QTOF-MS suspect screening and QSAR toxicity prediction

Endocrine active contaminants (EACs) in environmental samples can pose a range of toxicological threats to ecosystems, especially through their impacts on reproductive pathways mediated by the estrogen receptor. The physicochemical properties of known organic EACs vary greatly and typically require different sample preparation techniques to identify different classes of compounds. EAC sources are similarly diverse, including both endogenous compounds and anthropogenic chemicals found in personal care products, pharmaceuticals, and their transformation products, which are often disposed of to sewers at their end of use. Looking for EACs in sewage sludge proposes a bottom-up, or end-of-use and treatment approach to discover environmentally relevant EACs, since many EACs accumulate in sludges even after application of robust wastewater treatment processes. This study demonstrates an extraction and analytical method capable of detecting a broad spectrum of known and suspected EACs via High Resolution Liquid Chromatography Quadropole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS) suspect screening of fourteen California sewage sludge samples. Spike-recovery experiments were performed using twelve carefully selected surrogates to assess different extraction solvents, sample weights, extraction pH values, procedures for combining extracts with different extraction pH's, and solid phase extraction cartridges. Using LC-QTOF-MS, identifications of several other organic compounds in the samples were made, a goal unachievable with unit resolution mass spectrometry. Suspect screening of California sludge samples discovered 118 compounds including hormones, pharmaceuticals, phosphate flame retardants, recreational drugs, antimicrobials, and pesticides. Additionally, 22 of these identified compounds are predicted to interfere with estrogen receptors or other reproductive/developmental pathways based on the VEGA QSAR toxicity prediction model.

In situ analysis of pesticide residues on the surface of agricultural products via surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy using a flexible Au@Ag–PDMS substrate

In situ analysis of pesticide residues on the surface of agricultural products via surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy using a flexible Au@Ag–PDMS substrate.

Multivariate analysis of tioconazole - TCNQ charge transfer interaction: Kinetics, thermodynamics and twofold response optimization

Charge-transfer complex (CTC) formation between tioconazole (TCZ) as an n-electron donor and 7, 7, 8, 8-tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ) as a π-acceptor was studied spectrophotometrically with an accompanying kinetic and thermodynamic investigation. Multivariate data analysis via a set of experimental designs was executed for this purpose. A 2³ - two-level full factorial design (FFD) was used for inspecting the proposed variables while a face-centered central composite design (FCCCD) was used to adjust the levels of variables proved to be significant. Two responses were quantified as a result of this interaction; complex I (Y1, measured at 743 nm) and complex II (Y2, measured at 842 nm). Derringer's function and overlaid contour plots were used to concurrently optimize both responses. Benesi-Hildebrand equation was applied to determine of formation constant (K), and the molar absorptivity (Ɛ) of the formed complex. Different thermodynamic parameters; the standard Gibbs free energy change (∆G°), the standard enthalpy of formation (∆H°) and the standard entropy change (∆S°) were determined for the reaction product. The proposed method was validated regarding the linearity, intra-, and inter-day precision and accuracy, limit of detection, limit of quantification and following the ICH standards. The proposed method was also applied for the determination of TCZ in its pharmaceutical preparations. Having a higher molar absorptivity and higher formation constant, complex II was of choice for all subsequent measurements. Application of Benesi-Hildebrand equation supported the formation of 1: 1 CTC. Thermodynamic study revealed the endothermic characters and the spontaneity of formation of the CTC at high temperature.

Evaluation of the aqueous phototransformation routes of phenyl ethyl azolic fungicides by liquid chromatography accurate mass spectrometry

Similarities and differences among the phototransformation routes of four azolic fungicides (diniconazole, DIN, imazalil, IMA; penconazole, PEN; and propiconazole, PRO) in surface water aliquots are investigated. Selected compounds share a common chemical structure consisting on dichlorophenyl and azolic rings connected through an ethylene bridge, which is substituted with different functionalities. Liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS) was employed as analytical technique to follow the time-course of precursor fungicides and to detect and to identify their photo-transformation products (TPs). Under solar light, the substituents linked to the ethylene chain controlled the stability of the fungicides. Whilst PEN and PRO remained stable, DIN and IMA showed moderate reactivities, with half-lives (t_1/2) of 5.1 and 33.5h, respectively. When exposed to UV (254nm) radiation, all compounds were effectively degraded with t_1/2 in the range from seconds to a few minutes. Dechlorination followed by intramolecular cyclization, between phenyl and azolic rings, was identified as a common phototransformation route under UV irradiation. Depending on the length and the kind of the functionalities attached to the ethylene bridge, additional cyclization reactions are also possible. In-silico toxicity predictions pointed out to dechlorinated tricyclic TPs as the most concerning ones, with predicted lethal concentrations (LC₅₀) in the same range as the precursor fungicides.

Liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry identification and determination of tri- and hexaaryl chloro imidazoles in sewage sludge

The identification and further quantification of 2-chloro-triarylimidazole (o-Cl-TAI) and its dimer (o-DCl-HABI) in sludge from a sewage treatment plant (STP) is reported for the first time. Liquid chromatography (LC) quadrupole time-of-flight (QTOF) mass spectrometry (MS) was used as analytical technique during screening and determination steps. Pollutants were identified following a post-run search strategy, applying the chlorine mass filter, and characterized by their accurate MS and product ion scan spectra. Finally, their identities were confirmed with authentic standards. The species (o-Cl-TAI) has been rated as potentially genotoxic and carcinogenic for mice and rats. Effects of sample preparation in the stability and the extraction efficiency of both compounds are discussed. Under final conditions, they were extracted from freeze-dried samples (0.5 g of sludge or biosolids dispersed with 2 g of C₁₈ and packed into a polypropylene syringe) with 20 ml of methanol, which also flowed through a clean-up layer of Florisil and PSA sorbents (0.5 g each). This method attained quantitative extraction yields and limits of quantification between 4 and 10 ng/g. The pollutants o-Cl-TAI and o-DCl-HABI were ubiquitous in sludge and biosolids obtained in consecutive years from the investigated STP. Their concentrations varied from 0.02 to more than 13 μg/g (freeze-dried sample). Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.