Novel hemotropic Mycoplasma species in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)

Molecular survey of hemoplasmas and Coxiella burnetii in vampire bats from northern Brazil

In addition to zoonotic viral pathogens, bats can also harbor bacterial pathogens, including hemoplasmas (hemotropic mycoplasmas) and Coxiella burnetii. The present study aimed to investigate, using molecular techniques, the presence of hemoplasmas and C. burnetii in spleen samples from vampire bats in northern Brazil. For this purpose, between 2017 and 2019, spleen samples were collected from Desmodus rotundus (n = 228) and Diaemus youngii (n = 1) captured in the states of Pará (n = 207), Amazonas (n = 1), Roraima (n = 18) and Amapá (n = 3). DNA samples extracted from the bat spleen and positive in PCR for the endogenous gapdh gene were subjected to conventional PCR assays for the 16S rRNA, 23S rRNA and RNAse P genes from hemoplasmas and to qPCR based on the IS1111 gene element for C. burnetii. All spleen samples from vampire bats were negative in the qPCR for C. burnetii. Hemoplasmas were detected in 10 % (23/229) of spleen samples using a PCR based on the 16S rRNA gene. Of these, 21.73 % (5/23) were positive for the 23S rRNA gene and none for the RNAseP gene. The seven hemoplasma 16S rRNA sequences obtained were closely related to sequences previously identified in vampire bats from Belize, Peru and Brazil. The 23S rRNA sequence obtained revealed genetic proximity to hemoplasmas from non-hematophagous bats from Brazil and Belize. The analysis revealed different circulating genotypes among Brazilian vampire bats, in addition to a trend towards genera-specific hemoplasma genotypes. The present study contributes to the knowledge of the wide diversity of hemoplasmas in vampire bats.

Noteworthy records of the ticks Ornithodoros rostratus and Amblyomma sculptum parasitizing Pteronura brasiliensis in the central-western region of Brazil, with pathogen investigation notes

A male of Pteronura brasiliensis (Carnivora: Mustelidae) was found dead on the banks of the Rio Negro, in the Pantanal wetlands of Mato Grosso do Sul state, Aquidauana municipality. Two ticks found attached to its skin were morphologically identified as a second-instar nymph of Ornithodoros rostratus (Argasidae) and a male of Amblyomma sculptum (Ixodidae). In order to complement the morphological identification, these tick specimens were subjected to DNA extraction, and tested using PCR assays to confirm the molecular identity the specimens. Also, the tick DNA samples were tested and were negative in the PCR assays for all the pathogens tested. We also examined 30 batches, consisting of 174 individuals of O. rostratus deposited in the Acari Collection of the Butantan Institute, and we found material from four Brazilian states, including one batch containing 2 males and 2 females from Aquidauana, of Mato Grosso do Sul state, collected from the soil. This was therefore the first record of O. rostratus parasitizing P. brasiliensis and the first locality record (Aquidauana). Likewise, A. sculptum is commonly found in the Pantanal and is reported here for the second time parasitizing the giant otter, which is a host little studied regarding the ectoparasites.

Transmission of haemotropic mycoplasma in the absence of arthropod vectors within a closed population of dogs on ectoparasiticides

Dog-infecting haemotropic mycoplasmas (haemoplasmas), such as Mycoplasma haemocanis and Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum are common blood-borne pathogens of canines that can potentially inflict a substantial burden of disease, particularly in immunosuppressed individuals. Nonetheless, the transmission of these pathogens remains debated as more evidence emerges that they may not be transmitted by vectors, but instead use alternative methods such as aggressive interactions and vertical transmission. Here, we treated forty dogs with two different topically-acting ectoparasiticide products able to prevent vector-borne pathogen infections during an 8-month community trial in Cambodia. A total absence of ectoparasites were observed at all time points, and no new infections caused by pathogens confirmed as being vectorially-transmitted were detected, i.e., Babesia vogeli, Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma platys, and Hepatozoon canis. Conversely, the number of haemoplasma infections in dogs on both ectoparasiticides rose significantly, with an incidence of 26 infections per 100 dogs at risk per year, providing strong evidence of non-vectorial transmission. Over the study period, dog aggression and fighting were frequently observed, highlighting a different potential mode of transmission. This study presents the first robust evidence that canine haemoplasmas may be transmitted without arthropod vectors drawing attention to the need for new methods to prevent their transmission.

Molecular detection of blood-borne agents in vampire bats from Brazil, with the first molecular evidence of Neorickettsia sp. in Desmodus rotundus and Diphylla ecaudata

Bats (Mammalia, Chiroptera) represent the second largest group of mammals. Due to their ability to fly and adapt and colonize different niches, bats act as reservoirs of several potentially zoonotic pathogens. In this context, the present work aimed to investigate, using molecular techniques, the occurrence of blood-borne agents (Anaplasmataceae, Coxiella burnetii, hemoplasmas, hemosporidians and piroplasmids) in 198 vampire bats sampled in different regions of Brazil and belonging to the species Desmodus rotundus (n=159), Diphylla ecaudata (n=31) and Diaemus youngii (n=8). All vampire bats liver samples were negative in PCR assays for Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., piroplasmids, hemosporidians and Coxiella burnetii. However, Neorickettsia sp. was detected in liver samples of 1.51% (3/198) through nested PCR based on the 16S rRNA gene in D. rotundus and D. ecaudata. This is the first study to report Neorickettsia sp. in vampire bats. Hemoplasmas were detected in 6.06% (12/198) of the liver samples using a PCR based on the 16S rRNA gene. The two 16S rRNA sequences obtained from hemoplasmas were closely related to sequences previously identified in vampire and non-hematophagous bats from Belize, Peru and Brazil. The genotypic analysis identified a high diversity of bat-associated hemoplasma genotypes from different regions of the world, emphasizing the need for studies on this subject, in order to better understand the mechanisms of co-evolution between this group of bacteria and their vertebrate hosts. The role of neotropical bat-associated Neorickettsia sp. and bats from Brazilian in the biological cycle of such agent warrant further investigation.

Mycoplasmas as Host Pantropic and Specific Pathogens: Clinical Implications, Gene Transfer, Virulence Factors, and Future Perspectives

Mycoplasmas as economically important and pantropic pathogens can cause similar clinical diseases in different hosts by eluding host defense and establishing their niches despite their limited metabolic capacities. Besides, enormous undiscovered virulence has a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of pathogenic mycoplasmas. On the other hand, they are host-specific pathogens with some highly pathogenic members that can colonize a vast number of habitats. Reshuffling mycoplasmas genetic information and evolving rapidly is a way to avoid their host's immune system. However, currently, only a few control measures exist against some mycoplasmosis which are far from satisfaction. This review aimed to provide an updated insight into the state of mycoplasmas as pathogens by summarizing and analyzing the comprehensive progress, current challenge, and future perspectives of mycoplasmas. It covers clinical implications of mycoplasmas in humans and domestic and wild animals, virulence-related factors, the process of gene transfer and its crucial prospects, the current application and future perspectives of nanotechnology for diagnosing and curing mycoplasmosis, Mycoplasma vaccination, and protective immunity. Several questions remain unanswered and are recommended to pay close attention to. The findings would be helpful to develop new strategies for basic and applied research on mycoplasmas and facilitate the control of mycoplasmosis for humans and various species of animals.

Molecular investigation of hemotropic mycoplasmas and Coxiella burnetii in free-living Xenarthra mammals from Brazil, with evidence of new hemoplasma species

Although mammals of the superorder Xenarthra are considered hosts of a wide range of zoonotic agents, works aiming at investigating the role of these animals as hosts for bacteria with zoonotic potential are rare. The present study aimed to investigate the occurrence and molecularly characterize Coxiella burnetii and hemoplasma (hemotropic mycoplasmas) DNA in blood and spleen samples from 397 free-living Xenarthra mammals (233 sloths, 107 anteaters, and 57 armadillos) in five Brazilian states (Mato Grosso do Sul, São Paulo, Pará, Rondônia, and Rio Grande do Sul). All biological samples from Xenarthra were negative in the qPCR for Coxiella burnetii based on the IS1111 gene. The absence of C. burnetii DNA in blood and spleen samples from Xenarthra suggests that these mammals may not act as possible hosts for this agent in the locations studied. When performed conventional PCR assays for the endogenous (gapdh) mammalian gene, 386 samples were positive. When screened by molecular assays based on the 16S rRNA gene of hemoplasmas, 81 samples were positive, of which 15.54% (60/386) were positive by conventional PCR and 5.44% (21/386) were positive by real-time PCR; three samples were positive in both assays. Of these, 39.74% (31/78) were also positive for the 23S rRNA gene and 7.69% (6/78) for the hemoplasma RNAse P gene. Among the samples positive for hemoplasmas, 25.64% (20/78) were obtained from anteaters (Tamandua tetradactyla and Myrmecophaga tridactyla), 39.74% (31/78) from sloths (Bradypus tridactylus, Bradypus sp. and Choloepus sp.) 34.61% (27/78) from armadillos (Priodontes maximus, Euphractus sexcinctus and Dasypus novemcinctus). A hemoplasma 16S rRNA sequence closely related and showing high identity (99.7%) to Mycoplasma wenyonii was detected, for the first time, in B. tridactylus. Based on the low identity and phylogenetic positioning of 16S rRNA and 23S rRNA sequences of hemoplasmas detected in anteaters and armadillos, the present study showed, for the first time, the occurrence of putative new Candidatus hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. ('Candidatus Mycoplasma haematotetradactyla' and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematomaximus') in Xenarthra mammals from Brazil. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Expanding the Universe of Hemoplasmas: Multi-Locus Sequencing Reveals Putative Novel Hemoplasmas in Lowland Tapirs (Tapirus terrestris), the Largest Land Mammals in Brazil

The lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris) is the largest land mammal in Brazil and classified as a vulnerable species, according to the assessment of the risk of extinction. The present study aimed at investigating the occurrence and genetic diversity of hemoplasmas in free-ranging T. terrestris from the Brazilian Pantanal and Cerrado biomes. Blood samples were collected from 94 living and eight road-killed tapirs, totalizing 125 samples Conventional PCR targeting four different genes (16S rRNA, 23S rRNA, RNAse P, and dnaK) were performed, and the obtained sequences were submitted for phylogenetic, genotype diversity, and distance analyses. The association between hemoplasma positivity and possible risk variables (age, gender, and origin) was assessed. Out of 122 analyzed samples, 41 (41/122; 33.61% CI: 25.84-42.38%) were positive in the 16S rRNA-based PCR assay for hemoplasmas. Positivity for hemoplasmas did not differ between tapirs' gender and age. Tapirs from Pantanal were 5.64 times more likely to present positive results for hemoplasmas when compared to tapirs sampled in Cerrado. BLASTn, phylogenetic, genotype diversity, and distance analyses performed herein showed that the sampled lowland tapirs might be infected by two genetically distinct hemoplasmas, namely 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoterrestris' and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematotapirus'. While the former was positioned into "Mycoplasma haemofelis group" and closely related to 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum, the latter was positioned into "Mycoplasma suis group" and closely related to 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematobos'. The impact of both putative novel species on tapir health status should be investigated.

DETECTION OF VECTOR-BORNE INFECTIONS IN LIONS AND TIGERS AT TWO ZOOS IN TENNESSEE AND OKLAHOMA, USA

Protozoal and bacterial vector-borne infections are frequently diagnosed in domestic felids. However, with the exception of Mycoplasma haemofelis and Cytauxzoon felis, their occurrence in managed nondomestic felids housed in the United States is largely unknown. Following a case in February 2020 of fulminant cytauxzoonosis in an African lion (Panthera leo), EDTA-whole blood samples were collected opportunistically from February 2020 through June 2020 from 34 adult tigers (Panthera tigris) and eight adult African lions from the same sanctuary in eastern Tennessee as well as 14 adult tigers from a zoo in southern Oklahoma. Samples were analyzed for Cytauxzoon felis, Bartonella spp., hemotropic Mycoplasma, Rickettsia spp., Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp., Babesia spp., and Hepatozoon spp. DNA by PCR amplification. All animals were asymptomatic at the time of collection. None of the Oklahoma animals were positive for vector-borne organisms, but these pathogens were detected in tigers at the Tennessee facility, including Cytauxzoon felis (11.8%), "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum" (5.9%), and Ehrlichia ewingii (2.9%). During the study period, two animals developed clinical signs of cytauxzoonosis and were assessed for vector-borne infections as part of their diagnostic evaluation. This study documents the presence of tick-borne diseases in managed nondomestic felids in the southeastern United States and underscores that ectoparasite control measures should be practiced to minimize exposure of carnivores in managed care.

Molecular detection and genotype diversity of hemoplasmas in non-hematophagous bats and associated ectoparasites sampled in peri-urban areas from Brazil

Hemoplasmas have already been detected in bats in the United States of America, Spain, Australia, Chile, Brazil, Peru, Belize, Nigeria, Costa Rica, Germany, Switzerland and New Caledonia. The recent detection of hemoplasmas closely related to Mycoplasma haematohominis, an agent causing disease in humans, emphasizes the need for additional studies on the diversity of hemoplasmas in bats. The present work aimed to investigate the occurrence and assess the phylogenetic positioning and genetic diversity of hemoplasmas in bats and associated ectoparasites sampled in central-western Brazil. Overall, 43% (58/135) sampled bats and 1.56% (1/64) bat flies (Megistopoda aranea) were positive for hemoplasmas, however, twenty-four and two hemoplasma sequences were obtained from PCR assays targeting 16S and 23S rRNA genes, respectively, since the majority of the obtained amplicons showed faint bands in agarose gel electrophoresis. The obtained 16S rRNA sequences showed to be broadly distributed along the phylogenetic tree, albeit positioned within the 'Haemofelis group' and clustering with other bat-associated hemoplasmas. Twelve 16S rRNA hemoplasma genotypes were found among the 24 obtained sequences. When compared to other bat-related hemoplasmas sequences retrieved from the Genbank, 52 genotypes were found. The two 23S rRNA sequences obtained were positioned as a sister clade to "Candidatus Mycoplasma haematohydrochaerus", M. haemofelis and M. haemocanis. High genetic diversity was found among 16S rRNA hemoplasma sequences detected in non-hematophagous bats from central-western Brazil and previously detected in other regions of the world. Even though the genotype analysis showed that hemoplasmas from the same genus tend to group together, the results from the unipartite and bipartite analyses did not robustly support the hypothesis. Further studies addressing the specificity of hemoplasma genotypes according to bat species and genera should be performed.

Molecular Detection and Characterization of Hemoplasmas in the Pudu (Pudu puda), a Native Cervid from Chile

Hemotropic mycoplasmas cause hemolytic anemia in a variety of wild and domestic mammals. Despite growing evidence about their widespread presence and genetic diversity in wildlife, their presence has never been investigated in Chilean artiodactyls. We aimed to describe the presence and diversity of hemoplasmas in pudus (Pudu puda), a small cervid native to Chile. Hemoplasma infection was assessed in blood samples from 43 wild and 33 captive pudus from central and southern Chile by direct sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. We detected hemoplasmas in 13%, with no statistical differences between wild (19%) and captive animals (6%). A sequence closely related to Mycoplasma ovis was present both in wild (14%) and captive (6%) pudus. Two previously undescribed sequences, classified in a clade including hemoplasmas from carnivores, were found in one wild pudu each. This study presents the first evidence of the presence of M. ovis-like organisms in Chile and of the susceptibility of pudus to infection with hemoplasmas. Further research is needed to understand the pathologic consequences of this pathogen for pudus, its effects at the population level, and their potential impact on the health small ruminants and other wildlife species in Chile.

Vector-borne zoonotic blood parasites in wildlife from Ecuador: A report and systematic review

Background and Aim:

Ecuador is a hugely diverse country, but information on infectious diseases in local wild animals is scarce. The aim of this study was to screen the presence of blood parasites in free-ranging wild animals admitted to the Wildlife Hospital at Universidad San Francisco de Quito, from April 2012 to January 2019.

Materials and Methods:

We identified blood parasites by microscopic observation of blood smears from free-ranging wildlife species that attended the Wildlife Hospital of Universidad San Francisco de Quito (Ecuador) from April 2012 to January 2019.

Results:

The microscopic evaluations of animals as potential reservoirs for vector-borne zoonotic blood parasites revealed the presence of Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp., Ehrlichia spp., Hepatozoon spp., microfilaria, Mycoplasma spp., and Trypanosoma spp. in previously unreported wildlife species. In addition, we performed a systematic review to understand the current knowledge gaps in the context of these findings.

Conclusion:

Our data contribute to the knowledge of blood parasites in wildlife from Ecuador. Furthermore, the potential transmission of these parasites to humans and domestic animals, current anthropogenic environmental changes in the region, and the lack of information on this suggest the importance of our results and warrant further investigations on infectious diseases in animals and humans and their relationship with environmental health as key domains of the One Health concept.

A multipronged next-generation sequencing metabarcoding approach unearths hyperdiverse and abundant dog pathogen communities in Cambodia

Recent surveys in Southeast Asia, including Cambodia, have identified canine vector-borne pathogens (VBPs), including those with zoonotic potential, as highly prevalent. The lack of veterinary care alongside the close association semidomesticated dogs have with humans in the region exacerbates these zoonotic risks. Nonetheless, the number of studies investigating such pathogens and the threats they pose to dog and human health is limited. Here, we utilize a next-generation sequencing (NGS)-based metabarcoding protocol to conduct an assumption-free characterization of the bacterial, apicomplexan, and kinetoplastid blood-borne pathogens of free-roaming dogs from across Cambodia. From 467 dogs at five field sites, 62% were infected with one of eight confirmed pathogens, comprising Anaplasma platys (32%), Ehrlichia canis (20%), Hepatozoon canis (18%), Babesia vogeli (14%), Mycoplasma haemocanis (13%), the zoonotic pathogen Bartonella clarridgeiae (3%), Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum (0.2%), and Trypanosoma evansi (0.2%). Coinfections of between two and four VBPs were common with 28% of dogs found to have a mixed infection. Moreover, DNA from putatively infectious agents belonging to the bacterial family and genera Coxiella, Mycobacterium, Neisseria, Rickettsiaceae, Treponema, and two uncharacterized Mycoplasma species were identified, in addition to protozoan genera Colpodella, Parabodo, and Bodo. Using a multiple logistic regression model, the presence of ectoparasites, abnormal mucous membranes, anemia, and total protein were found as predictors of canine VBP exposure. This study represents the first time an NGS metabarcoding technique has been used to holistically detect the bacterial and protozoan hemoparasites communities of dogs through an in-depth survey, highlighting the power of such methods to unearth a wide spectrum of pathogenic organisms in an unbiased manner.

Molecular detection and characterization of novel haemotropic Mycoplasma in free-living mole rats from South Africa

The importance of haemotropic Mycoplasma (haemoplasma) infections to animal and human health is increasingly recognised. Although wild rodents are known to host these bacteria, haemoplasma prevalence and diversity in small mammals is under-documented, globally. This is due to the reliance on molecular approaches to detect these unculturable, obligate bacteria and to a paucity of assays targeting informative gene regions. We attempted to address these challenges by evaluating the performance of three 16S rRNA PCR assays for detecting Mycoplasma in four African mole-rat species of the family Bathyergidae. This was achieved by screening DNA samples prepared from lung and liver samples of 260 bathyergids, sampled from natural and urban landscapes in the Western Cape Province with one published and two novel conventional PCR assays. Sequence-confirmed Mycoplasma presence guided calculations of the relative sensitivity and specificity of the assays and revealed that 26.5% of the rodents were haemoplasma-positive. Bathyergus suillus sampled near an informal human settlement had a significantly higher infection rate (42%) than the three bathyergid species sampled from natural settings, for which PCR-positivity ranged from 0% to 36%. The 16S rRNA gene phylogeny identified the presence of six Mycoplasma strains in bathyergids that form a novel monophyletic lineage belonging to the haemofelis group, with 16S rRNA and Rnase P gene phylogenies indicating that the bathyergid-associated haemoplasmas were novel and closely related to Mycoplasma coccoides. Assay sensitivity ranged from 60.3% to 76.8% and specificity from 94.8% to 100% and both were highest for the novel assay targeting a ~ 300 bp region of the 16S rRNA gene. Results confirm the presence of novel haemoplasma strains in bathyergid species from South Africa and emphasise the need for expanded studies on haemoplama prevalence, diversity, and transmission routes in other small mammal species from this biodiverse region.

Worldwide occurrence of haemoplasmas in wildlife: Insights into the patterns of infection, transmission, pathology and zoonotic potential

Haemotropic mycoplasmas (haemoplasmas) have increasingly attracted the attention of wildlife disease researchers due to a combination of wide host range, high prevalence and genetic diversity. A systematic review identified 75 articles that investigated haemoplasma infection in wildlife by molecular methods (chiefly targeting partial 16S rRNA gene sequences), which included 131 host genera across six orders. Studies were less common in the Eastern Hemisphere (especially Africa and Asia) and more frequent in the Artiodactyla and Carnivora. Meta-analysis showed that infection prevalence did not vary by geographic region nor host order, but wild hosts showed significantly higher prevalence than captive hosts. Using a taxonomically flexible machine learning algorithm, we also found vampire bats and cervids to have greater prevalence, whereas mink, a subclade of vesper bats, and true foxes all had lower prevalence compared to the remaining sampled mammal phylogeny. Haemoplasma genotype and nucleotide diversity varied little among wild mammals but were marginally lower in primates and bats. Coinfection with more than one haemoplasma species or genotype was always confirmed when assessed. Risk factors of infection identified were sociality, age, males and high trophic levels, and both prevalence and diversity were often higher in undisturbed environments. Haemoplasmas likely use different and concurrent transmission routes and typically display enzootic dynamics when wild populations are studied longitudinally. Haemoplasma pathology is poorly known in wildlife but appears subclinical. Candidatus Mycoplasma haematohominis, which causes disease in humans, probably has it natural host in bats. Haemoplasmas can serve as a model system in ecological and evolutionary studies, and future research on these pathogens in wildlife must focus on increasing the geographic range and taxa of studies and elucidating pathology, transmission and zoonotic potential. To facilitate such work, we recommend using universal PCR primers or NGS protocols to detect novel haemoplasmas and other genetic markers to differentiate among species and infer cross-species transmission.

Genetic diversity of emerging hemotropic mycoplasmas in domestic pigs from Brazil

Mycoplasma suis and Mycoplasma parvum bind strongly to erythrocytes and may cause clinical hemoplasmosis in swine, affecting several age groups. Mycoplasma spp. infected animals may be asymptomatic carriers and/or show nonspecific clinical signs. In Brazil, information on genetic diversity associated with porcine hemoplasmas (PH) has not been described yet. Therefore, this study has aimed to detect, quantify and characterize the genetic diversity of PH in finishing pigs from technified farms in the state of Goiás, central-western Brazil. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid-blood samples from 450 swine belonging to 30 different farms from Goiás state were collected at the slaughterhouse. Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) assays were performed for the molecular detection and quantification of PH 16S rRNA gene fragments. Cloning and sequencing of 16S and 23S rRNA amplicons were performed to evaluate the genetic diversity. Moreover, a questionnaire was applied to each farm manager to obtain epidemiological information about the herd. The results on qPCR showed herd occurrence of 68.89% for PH. Quantification values (starting quantity [SQ]) ranged from 8.43 × 10^-1 to 4.69 × 10⁶ copies/µl, and 52.71% of the samples presented SQ values equal or lower than 1 × 10³ copies/µl. Risk factors were not evaluated once all farms had at least one positive animal. However, Spearman's coefficient test revealed that the occurrence of PH was inversely associated with the number of farrows per week, weaned piglets per week, and weight at slaughter. Phylogenetic analysis based on maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods showed that the 16S rRNA and 23S rRNA gene sequences obtained from five samples formed a single cluster closely related to M. parvum. Genotype analysis using DNASP software confirmed seven and four different 16S and 23S rRNA genotypes among the cloned amplicons, indicating that there are several genotypes of M. parvum circulating in individual pigs and among pig farms in central-western Brazil.

Prevalence and phylogeny of Chlamydiae and hemotropic mycoplasma species in captive and free-living bats

BACKGROUND

Bats are hosts for a variety of microorganisms, however, little is known about the presence of Chlamydiales and hemotropic mycoplasmas. This study investigated 475 captive and free-living bats from Switzerland, Germany, and Costa Rica for Chlamydiales and hemotropic mycoplasmas by PCR to determine the prevalence and phylogeny of these organisms.

RESULTS

Screening for Chlamydiales resulted in a total prevalence of 31.4%. Positive samples originated from captive and free-living bats from all three countries. Sequencing of 15 samples allowed the detection of two phylogenetically distinct groups. These groups share sequence identities to Chlamydiaceae, and to Chlamydia-like organisms including Rhabdochlamydiaceae and unclassified Chlamydiales from environmental samples, respectively. PCR analysis for the presence of hemotropic mycoplasmas resulted in a total prevalence of 0.7%, comprising free-living bats from Germany and Costa Rica. Phylogenetic analysis revealed three sequences related to other unidentified mycoplasmas found in vampire bats and Chilean bats.

CONCLUSIONS

Bats can harbor Chlamydiales and hemotropic mycoplasmas and the newly described sequences in this study indicate that the diversity of these bacteria in bats is much larger than previously thought. Both, Chlamydiales and hemotropic mycoplasmas are not restricted to certain bat species or countries and captive and free-living bats can be colonized. In conclusion, bats represent another potential host or vector for novel, previously unidentified, Chlamydiales and hemotropic mycoplasmas.

Molecular detection of vector-borne agents in cats in Southern Brazil

This study used serological and molecular methods to investigate the occurrence of vector-borne pathogens (VBP) with zoonotic potential in cats neutered at the University Veterinary Hospital in Canoinhas, Santa Catarina. The combined PCR and serological results revealed that 17 (56.6%) cats were positive for one or more pathogens. The sampled cats had antibodies to Ehrlichia spp. (7/30), Anaplasma phagocytophilum (3/30) and Leishmania infantum (2/30). The PCR assay detected DNA closely related to Ehrlichia canis in 6/30 cats, Mycoplasma haemofelis in 2/30 cats, A. phagocytophilum and Cytauxzoon sp. in one cat each. While Bartonella clarridgeiae and B. henselae were detected in two cats each, and B. koehlerae was detected in one cat.

New records and genetic diversity of Mycoplasma ovis in free-ranging deer in Brazil

Cervids represent a mammal group which plays an important role in the maintenance of ecological balance. Recent studies have highlighted the role of these species as reservoirs for several arthropods-borne pathogens. Globally, hemotropic mycoplasmas (haemoplasmas) are emerging or remerging bacteria that attach to red blood cells of several mammals species causing hemolytic anaemia. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence and assess the phylogenetic positioning of Mycoplasma ovis in free-ranging deer from Brazil. Using a polymerase chain reaction targeting the 16S rRNA region, 18 (40%) out of 45 sampled deer were positive to M. ovis. Among the nine sequences analysed, four distinct genotypes were identified. The sequences detected in the present study were closely related to sequences previously identified in deer from Brazil and the USA. On the other hand, the Neighbour-Net network analysis showed that the human-associated M. ovis genotypes were related to genotypes detected in sheep and goats. The present study shows, for the first time, the occurrence of M. ovis in Mazama gouazoubira and Mazama bororo deer species, expanding the knowledge on the hosts harbouring this haemoplasma species. Once several deer species have your population in decline, additional studies are needed to evaluate the pathogenicity of M. ovis among deer populations around the world and assess its potential as reservoir hosts to human infections.

Molecular identification of vector-borne organisms in Ehrlichia seropositive Nicaraguan horses and first report of Rickettsia felis infection in the horse

Certain vector-borne organisms serve as etiological agents of equine disease. After previously identifying a new Ehrlichia species in horses from Mérida, we aimed to determine the infection frequency and screen for a wide range of vector-borne organisms from 93 tick-exposed, Ehrlichia seropositive horses in this region. PCR assays were performed to identify infection by organisms within the following genera: Anaplasma, Babesia, Bartonella, Ehrlichia, Leishmania, Mycoplasma, Neorickettsia, Rickettsia and Theileria. Overall, 90/93 horses (96.8%) were infected with one or more vector-borne organisms. Ninety (96.8%) horses were infected with Theileria equi and 21 (26.8%) with Babesia caballi. Nine (9.7%) horses were infected with the novel Ehrlichia species previously designated H7, reported in horses from Nicaragua and Brazil. Two horses (2.2%) were infected with Rickettsia felis. Anaplasma, Bartonella, Leishmania, Mycoplasma, or Neorickettsia species DNA was not amplified from any horse. Ticks collected from horses infected with vector-borne organisms were identified as Amblyomma cajennense sensu lato and Dermacentor nitens. Horses in Mérida are infected by a range of vector-borne organisms, including B. caballi, T. equi, Ehrlichia species H7, and R. felis. To the authors' knowledge, this constitutes the first report of molecular detection of R. felis in horses.

Evidence for vertical transmission of Mycoplasma haemocanis, but not Ehrlichia ewingii, in a dog

A 2-year-old female intact pregnant Beagle was evaluated after the owner surrendered her to a shelter. Prepartum and 2 months postpartum at the time of routine spay, the dam was whole-blood polymerase chain reaction (PCR) positive for Ehrlichia ewingii. She was also whole-blood PCR positive for Mycoplasma haemocanis prepartum and continuously for 5 months thereafter. The dam delivered 5 healthy puppies, 1 of which was whole-blood PCR positive for M. haemocanis. All 5 puppies had antibodies against Ehrlichia spp. at 1 month of age but not thereafter, and all puppies were Ehrlichia spp. PCR negative for 5 months of follow-up. Therefore, this study supports a potential role for vertical transmission in the maintenance of M. haemocanis in dogs as reservoir hosts. In contrast, in this case there was no evidence that E. ewingii was transmitted transplacentally or during the perinatal period.

High frequency and molecular characterization of porcine hemotrophic mycoplasmas in Brazil

Mycoplasma suis and Mycoplasma parvum are the two hemotrophic mycoplasmas species described in pigs. M. suis is involved in infectious anemia, while M parvum infection is commonly subclinical. The objectives of this study were twofold: (i) to investigate the prevalence of porcine hemotrophic mycoplasmas in sows from the southern region of Brazil by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and (ii) to genetically characterize a subset of the samples based on the 16S rRNA gene. A total of 429 blood samples were evaluated from 53 different farm sites. Porcine hemoplasmas was detected at all the 53 tested sites and in 79.72% of the samples (342/429). Two sequences were obtained for Mycoplasma spp. The phylogenetic analysis based on the 16S rRNA gene (900 bp) showed that the Mycoplasma sequences were closely related to the M. suis cluster and that one sequence was positioned in the M. parvum cluster. In conclusion, porcine hemoplasmas have a high rate of prevalence in sows from commercial farms in the southern region of Brazil. This study demonstrated the first molecular detection and characterization of partial 16S rRNA gene of M. parvum in Brazil.

Polychromophilus melanipherus and haemoplasma infections not associated with clinical signs in southern bent-winged bats (Miniopterus orianae bassanii) and eastern bent-winged bats (Miniopterus orianae oceanensis)

While bats are often viewed as carriers of infectious disease agents, little research has been conducted on the effects these pathogens may have on the bat populations themselves. The southern bent-winged bat (Miniopterus orianae bassanii) is a critically endangered subspecies endemic to south-eastern Australia. Population numbers of this bat have declined over the past 50 years, but the reasons for this are unclear. As part of a larger study to determine if disease could be a contributing factor to this decline, southern bent-winged bats from several locations in Victoria and South Australia were captured and examined for the presence of the blood parasite, Polychromophilus melanipherus, and haemoplasmas (Mycoplasma sp.). Results were compared with those obtained from populations of the more common, partially sympatric, eastern bent-winged bat (Miniopterus orianae oceanensis) from three different locations in Victoria. Both organisms were found in both subspecies (prevalence of P. melanipherus 60% by PCR for southern bent-winged bats compared with 46% for eastern bent-winged bats; prevalence of haemoplasmas 10% for southern bent-winged bats compared with 8% for eastern bent-winged bats), with no association between the probability of infection, body weight, abnormal blood parameters or any other indicators of ill health. However, Victorian southern bent-winged bats had heavier burdens of P. melanipherus than both the South Australian southern bent-winged bats and eastern bent-winged bats. Further investigations are required to determine if these differences are impacting population health.

Molecular detection of Bartonella species and haemoplasmas in wild African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in Mozambique, Africa

The African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), a mammal species whose population is declining, can play a role as a reservoir or carrier of a wide number of arthropod-borne pathogens. Translocation procedures have been used as an alternative approach for species conservation. However, the veterinary aspects of this sort of procedures are extremely important to minimize the impact on animal health. In order to detectBartonellaand haemoplasmas, two important group of bacterial that have an impact in both human and animal health, EDTA whole-blood samples were screened for the presence of these bacterial pathogens by molecular techniques. As a result, a molecular occurrence of 4.1 and 15.4% forBartonellaspp. and haemoplasmas, respectively, was reported among 97 wild buffaloes sampled during a translocation procedure from Marromeu to Gorongosa Reserve, Mozambique. Additionally, phylogenetic analyses of the obtained sequences were conducted. At least, three bovine-associated pathogens, namelyB. bovis,M. wenyoniiand ‘CandidatusM. haemobos’, as well as a probably newBartonellagenotype/species were detected inS. caffer.Further studies are needed in order to determine whether these bacterial species may cause impact in buffaloes and other sympatric ruminant species living in the release site.

Co-infection with arthropod-borne pathogens in domestic cats

Abstract The role of several feline vector-borne pathogens (FVBP) as a cause of disease in cats has not been clearly determined. In fact, with the exception of Bartonella spp. and hemoplasmas, FVBP in cats has not been clearly determined in Brazil yet. The present study aimed at identifying, by using molecular methods, the presence of FVBP in three cats showing non-specific clinical signs and inclusions suggestive of hemoparasites in blood smears. Cytauxzoon felis, ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’, Ehrlichia sp. closely related to Ehrlichia canis, and Anaplasma sp. closely related to Anaplasma phagocytophilum were detected in blood samples from two out of three sampled cats. Both cats positive for multiple FVBP did not show hematological and biochemical abnormalities. The present work emphasizes the need for molecular confirmation of co-infection by multiple FVBP in cats presenting non-specific clinical signs and inclusions resembling hemoparasites in blood smears.

Novel hemotropic mycoplasmas are widespread and genetically diverse in vampire bats

Bats (Order: Chiroptera) have been widely studied as reservoir hosts for viruses of concern for human and animal health. However, whether bats are equally competent hosts of non-viral pathogens such as bacteria remains an important open question. Here, we surveyed blood and saliva samples of vampire bats from Peru and Belize for hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. (hemoplasmas), bacteria that can cause inapparent infection or anemia in hosts. 16S rRNA gene amplification of blood showed 67% (150/223) of common vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus) were infected by hemoplasmas. Sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene amplicons revealed three novel genotypes that were phylogenetically related but not identical to hemoplasmas described from other (non-vampire) bat species, rodents, humans, and non-human primates. Hemoplasma prevalence in vampire bats was highest in non-reproductive and young individuals, did not differ by country, and was relatively stable over time (i.e., endemic). Metagenomics from pooled D. rotundus saliva from Peru detected non-hemotropic Mycoplasma species and hemoplasma genotypes phylogenetically similar to those identified in blood, providing indirect evidence for potential direct transmission of hemoplasmas through biting or social contacts. This study demonstrates vampire bats host several novel hemoplasmas and sheds light on risk factors for infection and basic transmission routes. Given the high frequency of direct contacts that arise when vampire bats feed on humans, domestic animals, and wildlife, the potential of these bacteria to be transmitted between species should be investigated in future work.

Molecular screening for hemotropic mycoplasmas in captive Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) in southern Brazil

AIM

This study is part of an active surveillance program for monitoring animal health status in endangered species, and was conducted to screen captive Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) for hemoplasma infection.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 12 blood samples were collected, DNA extracted and further tested by a pan-hemoplasma polymerase chain reaction protocol.

RESULTS

Animals were clinically healthy and not infested by ectoparasites. Although housekeeping gene DNA was successfully amplified, all the Barbary sheep samples tested negative for Mycoplasma sp.

CONCLUSION

Notwithstanding the negative results, molecular pathogen surveys on Barbary sheep and other exotic wild mammals may provide insights regarding infection of endangered species caused by captivity stress in association with exposure to new pathogens worldwide.

Occurrence and molecular characterization of hemoplasmas in domestic dogs and wild mammals in a Brazilian wetland

Hemotropic mycoplasmas are known to cause anemia in several mammalian species. The present work aimed to investigate the occurrence of Mycoplasma spp. in wild mammals, domestic dogs and their respective ectoparasites, in southern Pantanal region, central-western Brazil. Between August 2013 and March 2015, 31 Nasua nasua, 78 Cerdocyon thous, seven Leopardus pardalis, 42 dogs, 110 wild rodents, and 30 marsupials were trapped and ectoparasites (ticks and fleas) found parasitizing the animals were collected. Mammals and ectoparasites DNA samples were submitted to conventional PCR assays for Mycoplasma spp. targeting 16S rRNA and RnaseP genes. Twenty-four N. nasua, three C. thous, two domestic dogs, one L. pardalis and one wild rodent were positive for 16S rRNA PCR protocols. Fourteen N. nasua samples were also positive in RnaseP PCR. No marsupial or arthropod showed positivity for Mycoplasma spp. The phylogenetic analyses based on 16S rRNA gene showed that all sequences obtained from dogs, two sequences obtained from C. thous and ten sequences obtained from N. nasua showed to be closely related to Mycoplasma haemocanis/Mycoplasma haemofelis species. Genotypes closely related to 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' and Mycoplasma haemomuris were detected in the L. pardalis and in the wild rodent, respectively. Probably a novel Mycoplasma genotype, closely related to a sequence obtained from a Brazilian capybara was detected in 14 N. nasua, based on a concatenated phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA and RnaseP genes. The present study revealed that wild animals in southern Pantanal region, Brazil, are exposed to different species of hemoplasmas.

Molecular characterization of hemotropic mycoplasmas (Mycoplasma ovis and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemovis') in sheep and goats in China

BACKGROUND

Hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) are emerging zoonotic pathogens with a worldwide distribution that can cause mild to severe hemolytic anemia, icterus, ill-thrift, infertility, and poor weight gain. However, understanding of the molecular epidemiology of hemoplasmas (Mycoplasma ovis and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemovis') is limited in sheep and goats, and the hemoplasma strain/species/variant 'Candidatus M. haemovis' was poorly studied throughout the world and had never been detected in China until now. Thus, the aim of the present study was to determine the molecular prevalence of hemoplasmas, including M. ovis and 'Candidatus M. haemovis' in sheep and goats from seven provinces and one autonomous region of China.

METHODS

A total of 1364 blood samples were collected from sheep and goats in seven provinces and one autonomous region of China. All blood samples were tested for hemoplasmas (M. ovis and 'Candidatus M. haemovis') by nested PCR amplification based on 16S rRNA gene. Positive specimens underwent nucleotide sequencing and phylogenetic analysis.

RESULTS

Overall, 610 specimens (44.7%, 610/1364) were shown to be hemoplasmas (M. ovis and 'Candidatus M. haemovis') -positive by nested PCR amplification based on 16S rRNA gene. The prevalence in goats was 44.1% (379/860), and 45.8% (231/504) in sheep, while that in grazing small ruminants was 54.4% (396/728) and 33.6% (214/636) in house feeding small ruminants. Sequencing of the nearly complete 16S rRNA gene was successful for the 103 randomly selected positive specimens from different farms in different sampling sites of China. Among them, analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequences identified M. ovis (n = 56) and 'Candidatus M. haemovis' (n = 47). Two (KU983740 and KU983746) of the four novel genotypes obtained in this study were closely related to M. ovis, while the other two genotypes (KU983748 and KU983749) had high identity with 'Candidatus M. haemovis'. Remarkably, the genotype (KU983740) of M. ovis in sheep and goats in this study fell in a clade with two human hemoplasmas from USA (KF313922 and GU230144) and shared 99.8%-99.9% with them.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, 'Candidatus M. haemovis' was first detected in Chinese sheep and goats and hemoplasmas (M. ovis and 'Candidatus M. haemovis') are highly prevalent, and widely distributed in China.

Evidence and molecular characterization ofBartonellaspp. and hemoplasmas in neotropical bats in Brazil

The order Chiroptera is considered the second largest group of mammals in the world, hosting important zoonotic virus and bacteria.Bartonellaand hemotropic mycoplasmas are bacteria that parasite different mammals’ species, including humans, causing different clinical manifestations. The present work aimed investigating the occurrence and assessing the phylogenetic positioning ofBartonellaspp. andMycoplasmaspp. in neotropical bats sampled from Brazil. Between December 2015 and April 2016, 325 blood and/or tissues samples were collected from 162 bats comprising 19 different species sampled in five states of Brazil. Out of 322 bat samples collected, while 17 (5·28%) were positive to quantitative PCR forBartonellaspp. based onnuoGgene, 45 samples (13·97%) were positive to cPCR assays for hemoplasmas based on 16S rRNA gene. While seven sequences were obtained forBartonella(nuoG) (n= 3),gltA(n= 2),rpoB(n= 1),ftsZ(n= 1), five 16S rRNA sequences were obtained for hemoplasmas. In the phylogenetic analysis, theBartonellasequences clustered withBartonellagenotypes detected in bats sampled in Latin America countries. All five hemoplasmas sequences clustered together as a monophyletic group by Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Inference analyses. The present work showed the first evidence of circulation ofBartonellaspp. and hemoplasmas among bats in Brazil.

Prevalence, Genotype Richness, and Coinfection Patterns of Hemotropic Mycoplasmas in Raccoons (Procyon lotor) on Environmentally Protected and Urbanized Barrier Islands

Raccoons (Procyon lotor) are successful urban adapters and hosts to a number of zoonotic and nonzoonotic pathogens, yet little is known about their hemoplasma infections and how prevalence varies across habitat types. This study identifies hemotropic Mycoplasma species infection in raccoons from urban and undisturbed habitats and compares hemoplasma infection in sympatric urban cats (Felis catus) from the same geographic region. We collected blood from raccoons (n = 95) on an urban coastal island (n = 37) and an undisturbed coastal island (n = 58) and from sympatric urban cats (n = 39) in Georgia, USA. Based on 16S rRNA gene amplification, 62.1% (59/95) of raccoons and 17.9% (7/39) of feral cats were positive for hemoplasma. There was a greater percentage of hemoplasma-infected raccoons on the undisturbed island (79.3% [46/58]) than on the urban island (35.1% [13/37]; χ2 = 16.9, df = 1, P = 0.00004). Sequencing of the full-length 16S rRNA gene amplicons revealed six hemoplasma genotypes in raccoons, including five novel genotypes that were distinct from three known hemoplasma species identified in the sympatric cats. In addition, the hemoplasma genotypes detected in raccoons were not identified in sympatric cats or vice versa. Although all six hemoplasma genotypes were found in raccoons from urban and undisturbed islands, coinfection patterns differed between sites and among individuals, with the proportion of coinfected raccoons being greater in the undisturbed site. This study shows that raccoons are hosts for several novel hemoplasmas and that habitat type influences infection patterns.IMPORTANCE This study provides information about novel hemoplasmas identified in raccoons (Procyon lotor), which can be used for assessments of the prevalence of these hemoplasmas in raccoon populations and for future studies on the potential pathogenic impacts of these hemoplasmas on raccoon health. Raccoons from the undisturbed habitat had a higher prevalence of hemoplasma infection than urban raccoons. There does not appear to be cross-species transmission of hemotropic mycoplasmas between urban raccoons and feral cats. Raccoons appear to be hosts for several novel hemoplasmas, and habitat type influences infection patterns.

Occurrence of canine hemotropic mycoplasmas in domestic dogs from urban and rural areas of the Valdivia Province, southern Chile

This is the first study to investigate the occurrence, risk factors and hematological findings of hemoplasmas in dogs from Chile. Complete blood count and 16S rRNA conventional PCR for Mycoplasma spp. were performed in 278 blood samples from rural (n=139) and urban (n=139) dogs in Valdivia. Real time 16S rRNA PCR (qPCR) allowed species identification. Mycoplasma spp. occurrence was 24.8%. 'Candidatus M. haematoparvum' (CMhp) was identified in 12.2% and Mycoplasma haemocanis (Mhc) in 11.9% dogs. It was not possible to identify species in two Mycoplasma spp. samples by qPCR. Sequencing allowed identifying one of them as 'Candidatus M. turicensis' (CMt). Frequency in rural localities was higher (41.7%) than in urban (7.9%). Rural locality, maleness and older age were risk factors for hemoplasmosis. Hemoplasma-positive dogs had a higher total protein. This is the first report of Mhc, CMhp and CMt in dogs from Chile, with a high occurrence in rural localities.

Molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of the causative agent of hemoplasma infection in small Indian Mongoose (Herpestes Javanicus)

Hemoplasmas are the trivial name for a group of erythrocyte-parasitizing bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma. This study is the first report of hemoplasma infection in Small Indian Mongoose (Herpestes Javanicus) based on molecular analysis of 16S rDNA. Whole blood samples were collected by sterile methods, from 14 live captured mongooses, in the south of Iran. Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis (CMt)-like hemoplasma was detected in blood samples from one animal tested. BLAST search and phylogenetic analysis of partial 16S rDNA sequence (933bp) of the hemoplasma from Small Indian mongoose (KJ530704) revealed only 96-97% identity to the previously described CMt followed by 95% and 91% similarity with Mycoplasma coccoides and Mycoplasma haemomuris, respectively. Accordingly, the Iranian mongoose CMt isolate showed a high intra-specific genetic variation compared to all previously reported CMt strains in GenBank. Further molecular studies using multiple phylogenetic markers are required to characterize the exact species of Mongoose-derived hemoplasma.

Hemotropic mycoplasmas in little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus)

Background

Hemotropic mycoplasmas are epicellular erythrocytic bacteria that can cause infectious anemia in some mammalian species. Worldwide, hemotropic mycoplasmas are emerging or re-emerging zoonotic pathogens potentially causing serious and significant health problems in wildlife. The objective of this study was to determine the molecular prevalence of hemotropic Mycoplasma species in little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus) with and without Pseudogymnoascus (Geomyces) destrucans, the causative agent of white nose syndrome (WNS) that causes significant mortality events in bats.

Methods

In order to establish the prevalence of hemotropic Mycoplasma species in a population of 68 little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus) with (n = 53) and without (n = 15) white-nose syndrome (WNS), PCR was performed targeting the 16S rRNA gene.

Results

The overall prevalence of hemotropic Mycoplasmas in bats was 47%, with similar (p = 0.5725) prevalence between bats with WNS (49%) and without WNS (40%). 16S rDNA sequence analysis (~1,200 bp) supports the presence of a novel hemotropic Mycoplasma species with 91.75% sequence homology with Mycoplasma haemomuris. No differences were found in gene sequences generated from WNS and non-WNS animals.

Conclusions

Gene sequences generated from WNS and non-WNS animals suggest that little brown bats could serve as a natural reservoir for this potentially novel Mycoplasma species. Currently, there is minimal information about the prevalence, host-specificity, or the route of transmission of hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. among bats. Finally, the potential role of hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. as co-factors in the development of disease manifestations in bats, including WNS in Myotis lucifugus, remains to be elucidated.

Prevalence and molecular analyses of hemotrophic Mycoplasma spp. (hemoplasmas) detected in sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) in Japan

Hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) are cell-wall deficient, epierythrocytic bacteria that cause infectious anemia in several mammalian species. The prevalence of hemoplasma species was examined by screening and species-specific PCR using blood samples collected from 51 sika deer in Hokkaido, Japan. Molecular analyses were performed for the 16S rRNA, 23S rRNA and RNase P RNA (rnpB) gene sequences. A total of 23/51 (45%) deer DNA samples were positive for hemoplasmas in the screening PCR. Using species-specific PCR, 12 and 17 samples were positive for ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemocervae’ and ‘Candidatus M. erythrocervae’, respectively. Sequencing and phylogenetic trees of those three genes indicate that the ‘Candidatus M. haemocervae’ and ‘Candidatus M. erythrocervae’ detected in Japanese deer are potentially different species from the cervine hemoplasma found in deer from America and Brazil.