1
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Semenova MG, Petina AN, Fedorova EE. Autophagy and Symbiosis: Membranes, ER, and Speculations. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2918. [PMID: 38474164 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25052918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The interaction of plants and soil bacteria rhizobia leads to the formation of root nodule symbiosis. The intracellular form of rhizobia, the symbiosomes, are able to perform the nitrogen fixation by converting atmospheric dinitrogen into ammonia, which is available for plants. The symbiosis involves the resource sharing between two partners, but this exchange does not include equivalence, which can lead to resource scarcity and stress responses of one of the partners. In this review, we analyze the possible involvement of the autophagy pathway in the process of the maintenance of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria intracellular colony and the changes in the endomembrane system of the host cell. According to in silico expression analysis, ATG genes of all groups were expressed in the root nodule, and the expression was developmental zone dependent. The analysis of expression of genes involved in the response to carbon or nitrogen deficiency has shown a suboptimal access to sugars and nitrogen in the nodule tissue. The upregulation of several ER stress genes was also detected. Hence, the root nodule cells are under heavy bacterial infection, carbon deprivation, and insufficient nitrogen supply, making nodule cells prone to autophagy. We speculate that the membrane formation around the intracellular rhizobia may be quite similar to the phagophore formation, and the induction of autophagy and ER stress are essential to the success of this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria G Semenova
- Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology, Russian Academy of Science, 127276 Moscow, Russia
| | - Alekandra N Petina
- Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology, Russian Academy of Science, 127276 Moscow, Russia
| | - Elena E Fedorova
- Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology, Russian Academy of Science, 127276 Moscow, Russia
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2
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Niu P, Liu J, Rong Y, Liu X, Wei L. A fluorescent probe for selective and instantaneous detection of hydrogen sulfide in living cells and zebrafish. Tetrahedron 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2021.132174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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3
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Dols-Perez A, Marin V, Amador GJ, Kieffer R, Tam D, Aubin-Tam ME. Artificial Cell Membranes Interfaced with Optical Tweezers: A Versatile Microfluidics Platform for Nanomanipulation and Mechanical Characterization. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:33620-33627. [PMID: 31448892 PMCID: PMC6753654 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b09983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Cell lipid membranes are the site of vital biological processes, such as motility, trafficking, and sensing, many of which involve mechanical forces. Elucidating the interplay between such bioprocesses and mechanical forces requires the use of tools that apply and measure piconewton-level forces, e.g., optical tweezers. Here, we introduce the combination of optical tweezers with free-standing lipid bilayers, which are fully accessible on both sides of the membrane. In the vicinity of the lipid bilayer, optical trapping would normally be impossible due to optical distortions caused by pockets of the solvent trapped within the membrane. We solve this by drastically reducing the size of these pockets via tuning of the solvent and flow cell material. In the resulting flow cells, lipid nanotubes are straightforwardly pushed or pulled and reach lengths above half a millimeter. Moreover, the controlled pushing of a lipid nanotube with an optically trapped bead provides an accurate and direct measurement of important mechanical properties. In particular, we measure the membrane tension of a free-standing membrane composed of a mixture of dioleoylphosphatidylcholine (DOPC) and dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) to be 4.6 × 10-6 N/m. We demonstrate the potential of the platform for biophysical studies by inserting the cell-penetrating trans-activator of transcription (TAT) peptide in the lipid membrane. The interactions between the TAT peptide and the membrane are found to decrease the value of the membrane tension to 2.1 × 10-6 N/m. This method is also fully compatible with electrophysiological measurements and presents new possibilities for the study of membrane mechanics and the creation of artificial lipid tube networks of great importance in intra- and intercellular communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurora Dols-Perez
- Department
of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience,
Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, Delft 2629 HZ, The Netherlands
| | - Victor Marin
- Department
of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience,
Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, Delft 2629 HZ, The Netherlands
| | - Guillermo J. Amador
- Department
of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience,
Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, Delft 2629 HZ, The Netherlands
- Laboratory
for Aero and Hydrodynamics, Delft University
of Technology, Delft 2628 CD, The Netherlands
| | - Roland Kieffer
- Department
of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience,
Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, Delft 2629 HZ, The Netherlands
| | - Daniel Tam
- Laboratory
for Aero and Hydrodynamics, Delft University
of Technology, Delft 2628 CD, The Netherlands
| | - Marie-Eve Aubin-Tam
- Department
of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience,
Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, Delft 2629 HZ, The Netherlands
- E-mail: (M.A.)
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4
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Karimi AH, Mirdamadi HR, Ziaei-Rad S. Mathematical modeling of dynamic behavior of fluid bilayer membranes under the effect of density asymmetry. J Theor Biol 2018; 454:330-344. [PMID: 29959964 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2018.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2018] [Revised: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Shape transformations in biological membranes are crucial in a variety of cellular processes such as transport in the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum, shaping the cell organelles and signaling in neuronal synapses. Dynamic analysis of lipid bilayer membranes is popular among researchers as valuable information about cell functions can be retrieved. There are several limitations in experimental tests and simulations such as computational and implementation cost while in theoretical studies, different phenomena can be modeled and the effect of each parameter can be investigated. In this paper, a continuum model including elastic energies and dissipation functions is utilized with energy approach to obtain the governing equations of an enclosed lipid bilayer membrane. The governing equations are solved numerically for vesicles initially disturbed and the relaxation dynamics is studied. The stationary shape of the vesicles for different values of reduced volume and reduced area difference is obtained to explore the phase diagram and verify the governing equations. Then, the density asymmetry in bilayers caused by the change in the density or the equilibrium density of the outer monolayer is studied. This leads to the formation of buds, tubules, and pearls. This can be observed in the recruitment of proteins to the outer monolayer or pH gradients of the environment of a vesicle. The effect of density difference and curvature on creation and growth of tubules are investigated. An interesting metastable state in the adsorption of the final bud due to the increase in the density of the outer monolayer is observed in which the shape of the vesicle is almost unchanged. A prolate vesicle relaxes toward an oblate or a stomatocyte vesicle when the equilibrium density of the outer monolayer increases.
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Affiliation(s)
- A H Karimi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-83111, Iran.
| | - H R Mirdamadi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-83111, Iran.
| | - S Ziaei-Rad
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-83111, Iran.
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5
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Luarte A, Cornejo VH, Bertin F, Gallardo J, Couve A. The axonal endoplasmic reticulum: One organelle-many functions in development, maintenance, and plasticity. Dev Neurobiol 2017; 78:181-208. [PMID: 29134778 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2017] [Revised: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is highly conserved in eukaryotes and neurons. Indeed, the localization of the organelle in axons has been known for nearly half a century. However, the relevance of the axonal ER is only beginning to emerge. In this review, we discuss the structure of the ER in axons, examining the role of ER-shaping proteins and highlighting reticulons. We analyze the multiple functions of the ER and their potential contribution to axonal physiology. First, we examine the emerging roles of the axonal ER in lipid synthesis, protein translation, processing, quality control, and secretory trafficking of transmembrane proteins. We also review the impact of the ER on calcium dynamics, focusing on intracellular mechanisms and functions. We describe the interactions between the ER and endosomes, mitochondria, and synaptic vesicles. Finally, we analyze available proteomic data of axonal preparations to reveal the dynamic functionality of the ER in axons during development. We suggest that the dynamic proteome and a validated axonal interactome, together with state-of-the-art methodologies, may provide interesting research avenues in axon physiology that may extend to pathology and regeneration. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 78: 181-208, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Luarte
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Biomedical Neuroscience Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Víctor Hugo Cornejo
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Biomedical Neuroscience Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Francisca Bertin
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Biomedical Neuroscience Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Javiera Gallardo
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Biomedical Neuroscience Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Andrés Couve
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Biomedical Neuroscience Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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6
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Bahrami AH, Lin MG, Ren X, Hurley JH, Hummer G. Scaffolding the cup-shaped double membrane in autophagy. PLoS Comput Biol 2017; 13:e1005817. [PMID: 29065154 PMCID: PMC5669500 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Revised: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a physiological process for the recycling and degradation of cellular materials. Forming the autophagosome from the phagophore, a cup-shaped double-membrane vesicle, is a critical step in autophagy. The origin of the cup shape of the phagophore is poorly understood. In yeast, fusion of a small number of Atg9-containing vesicles is considered a key step in autophagosome biogenesis, aided by Atg1 complexes (ULK1 in mammals) localized at the preautophagosomal structure (PAS). In particular, the S-shaped Atg17-Atg31-Atg29 subcomplex of Atg1 is critical for phagophore nucleation at the PAS. To study this process, we simulated membrane remodeling processes in the presence and absence of membrane associated Atg17. We show that at least three vesicles need to fuse to induce the phagophore shape, consistent with experimental observations. However, fusion alone is not sufficient. Interactions with 34-nm long, S-shaped Atg17 complexes are required to overcome a substantial kinetic barrier in the transition to the cup-shaped phagophore. Our finding rationalizes the recruitment of Atg17 complexes to the yeast PAS, and their unusual shape. In control simulations without Atg17, with weakly binding Atg17, or with straight instead of S-shaped Atg17, the membrane shape transition did not occur. We confirm the critical role of Atg17-membrane interactions experimentally by showing that mutations of putative membrane interaction sites result in reduction or loss of autophagic activity in yeast. Fusion of a small number of vesicles followed by Atg17-guided membrane shape-remodeling thus emerges as a viable route to phagophore formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Houshang Bahrami
- Department of Theoretical Biophysics, Max Planck Institute of Biophysics, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Mary G. Lin
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Xuefeng Ren
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - James H. Hurley
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
- Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Gerhard Hummer
- Department of Theoretical Biophysics, Max Planck Institute of Biophysics, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Institute for Biophysics, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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7
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Abstract
Lipid membrane nanotubes are abundant in living cells, even though tubules are energetically less stable than sheet-like structures. According to membrane elastic theory, the tubular endoplasmic reticulum (ER), with its high area-to-volume ratio, appears to be particularly unstable. We explore how tubular membrane structures can nevertheless be induced and why they persist. In Monte Carlo simulations of a fluid-elastic membrane model subject to thermal fluctuations and without constraints on symmetry, we find that a steady increase in the area-to-volume ratio readily induces tubular structures. In simulations mimicking the ER wrapped around the cell nucleus, tubules emerge naturally as the membrane area increases. Once formed, a high energy barrier separates tubules from the thermodynamically favored sheet-like membrane structures. Remarkably, this barrier persists even at large area-to-volume ratios, protecting tubules against shape transformations despite enormous driving forces toward sheet-like structures. Molecular dynamics simulations of a molecular membrane model confirm the metastability of tubular structures. Volume reduction by osmotic regulation and membrane area growth by lipid production and by fusion of small vesicles emerge as powerful factors in the induction and stabilization of tubular membrane structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Houshang Bahrami
- Department of Theoretical Biophysics, Max Planck Institute of Biophysics , Max-von-Laue Str. 3, 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Gerhard Hummer
- Department of Theoretical Biophysics, Max Planck Institute of Biophysics , Max-von-Laue Str. 3, 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Institute for Biophysics, Goethe University Frankfurt , 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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8
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Baudier J. ATAD3 proteins: brokers of a mitochondria-endoplasmic reticulum connection in mammalian cells. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2017; 93:827-844. [PMID: 28941010 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Revised: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 08/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
In yeast, a sequence of physical and genetic interactions termed the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mitochondria organizing network (ERMIONE) controls mitochondria-ER interactions and mitochondrial biogenesis. Several functions that characterize ERMIONE complexes are conserved in mammalian cells, suggesting that a similar tethering complex must exist in metazoans. Recent studies have identified a new family of nuclear-encoded ATPases associated with diverse cellular activities (AAA+-ATPase) mitochondrial membrane proteins specific to multicellular eukaryotes, called the ATPase family AAA domain-containing protein 3 (ATAD3) proteins (ATAD3A and ATAD3B). These proteins are crucial for normal mitochondrial-ER interactions and lie at the heart of processes underlying mitochondrial biogenesis. ATAD3A orthologues have been studied in flies, worms, and mammals, highlighting the widespread importance of this gene during embryonic development and in adulthood. ATAD3A is a downstream effector of target of rapamycin (TOR) signalling in Drosophila and exhibits typical features of proteins from the ERMIONE-like complex in metazoans. In humans, mutations in the ATAD3A gene represent a new link between altered mitochondrial-ER interaction and recognizable neurological syndromes. The primate-specific ATAD3B protein is a biomarker of pluripotent embryonic stem cells. Through negative regulation of ATAD3A function, ATAD3B supports mitochondrial stemness properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques Baudier
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, IBDM, 13284, Marseille Cedex 07, France.,Institut de Biologie du Développement de Marseille-UMR CNRS 7288, 13288, Marseille Cedex 9, France
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9
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Hellberg T, Paßvogel L, Schulz KS, Klupp BG, Mettenleiter TC. Nuclear Egress of Herpesviruses: The Prototypic Vesicular Nucleocytoplasmic Transport. Adv Virus Res 2016; 94:81-140. [PMID: 26997591 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aivir.2015.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Herpesvirus particles mature in two different cellular compartments. While capsid assembly and packaging of the genomic linear double-stranded DNA occur in the nucleus, virion formation takes place in the cytoplasm by the addition of numerous tegument proteins as well as acquisition of the viral envelope by budding into cellular vesicles derived from the trans-Golgi network containing virally encoded glycoproteins. To gain access to the final maturation compartment, herpesvirus nucleocapsids have to cross a formidable barrier, the nuclear envelope (NE). Since the ca. 120 nm diameter capsids are unable to traverse via nuclear pores, herpesviruses employ a vesicular transport through both leaflets of the NE. This process involves proteins which support local dissolution of the nuclear lamina to allow access of capsids to the inner nuclear membrane (INM), drive vesicle formation from the INM and mediate inclusion of the capsid as well as scission of the capsid-containing vesicle (also designated as "primary virion"). Fusion of the vesicle membrane (i.e., the "primary envelope") with the outer nuclear membrane subsequently results in release of the nucleocapsid into the cytoplasm for continuing virion morphogenesis. While this process has long been thought to be unique for herpesviruses, a similar pathway for nuclear egress of macromolecular complexes has recently been observed in Drosophila. Thus, herpesviruses may have coopted a hitherto unrecognized cellular mechanism of vesicle-mediated nucleocytoplasmic transport. This could have far reaching consequences for our understanding of cellular functions as again unraveled by the study of viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Hellberg
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Lars Paßvogel
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Katharina S Schulz
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Barbara G Klupp
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Thomas C Mettenleiter
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
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10
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Zemel A. Active mechanical coupling between the nucleus, cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix, and the implications for perinuclear actomyosin organization. SOFT MATTER 2015; 11:2353-2363. [PMID: 25652010 DOI: 10.1039/c4sm02425g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Experimental and theoretical studies have demonstrated that the polarization of actomyosin forces in the cytoskeleton of adherent cells is governed by local elastic stresses. Based on this phenomenon, and the established observation that the nucleus is mechanically connected to the extracellular matrix (ECM) via the cytoskeleton, we theoretically analyze here the active mechanical coupling between the nucleus, cytoskeleton and the ECM. The cell is modeled as an active spherical inclusion, containing a round nucleus at its center, and embedded in a 3D elastic matrix. We investigate three sources of cellular stress: spreading-induced stress, actomyosin contractility and chromatin entropic forces. Formulating the coupling of actomyosin contractility to the local stress we predict the consequences that the nucleus, cytoskeleton and ECM mechanical properties may have on the overall force-balance in the cell and the perinuclear acto-myosin polarization. We demonstrate that the presence of the nucleus induces symmetry breaking of the elastic stress that, we predict, elastically tends to orient actomyosin alignment tangentially around the nucleus; the softer the nucleus or the matrix, the stronger is the preference for tangential alignment. Spreading induced stresses may induce radial actomyosin alignment near stiff nuclei. In addition, we show that in regions of high actomyosin density myosin motors have an elastic tendency to orient tangentially as often occurs near the cell periphery. These conclusions highlight the role of the nucleus in the regulation of cytoskeleton organization and may provide new insight into the mechanics of stem cell differentiation involving few fold increase in nucleus stiffness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Assaf Zemel
- Institute of Dental Sciences and Fritz Haber Center for Molecular Dynamics, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 91120, Israel.
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11
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Subburaj Y, Ros U, Hermann E, Tong R, García-Sáez AJ. Toxicity of an α-pore-forming toxin depends on the assembly mechanism on the target membrane as revealed by single molecule imaging. J Biol Chem 2014; 290:4856-4865. [PMID: 25525270 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.600676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
α-Pore-forming toxins (α-PFTs) are ubiquitous defense tools that kill cells by opening pores in the target cell membrane. Despite their relevance in host/pathogen interactions, very little is known about the pore stoichiometry and assembly pathway leading to membrane permeabilization. Equinatoxin II (EqtII) is a model α-PFT from sea anemone that oligomerizes and forms pores in sphingomyelin-containing membranes. Here, we determined the spatiotemporal organization of EqtII in living cells by single molecule imaging. Surprisingly, we found that on the cell surface EqtII did not organize into a unique oligomeric form. Instead, it existed as a mixture of oligomeric species mostly including monomers, dimers, tetramers, and hexamers. Mathematical modeling based on our data supported a new model in which toxin clustering happened in seconds and proceeded via condensation of EqtII dimer units formed upon monomer association. Furthermore, altering the pathway of EqtII assembly strongly affected its toxic activity, which highlights the relevance of the assembly mechanism on toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yamunadevi Subburaj
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstr. 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany; German Cancer Research Center, Bioquant, Im Neuenheimer Feld 267, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Uris Ros
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, Calle 25 #455, Plaza de la Revolución, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Eduard Hermann
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstr. 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany; German Cancer Research Center, Bioquant, Im Neuenheimer Feld 267, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany,; Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of Tübingen, Hoppe-Seyler-Str. 4, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Rudi Tong
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstr. 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Ana J García-Sáez
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstr. 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany; German Cancer Research Center, Bioquant, Im Neuenheimer Feld 267, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany,; Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of Tübingen, Hoppe-Seyler-Str. 4, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.
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